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Sukarno in 1949 1st In office 18 August 1945 – 12 March 1967 Prime Minister (until 1956) Preceded by position established Succeeded by as In office 9 July 1959 – 25 July 1966 President Himself Preceded by Succeeded by Post abolished Personal details Born ( 1901-06-06)6 June 1901,, Died 21 June 1970 ( 1970-06-21) (aged 69), Indonesia Political party Height 1.72 m (5 ft 8 in) Spouse(s) Oetari Inggit Garnasih (m. 1943–1960) Hartini Kartini Manoppo (m. 1960–1970, his death) Haryati Yurike Sanger Heldy Djafar Children. • • Signature Sukarno (born Kusno Sosrodihardjo;: ꦯꦸꦏꦂꦤ; 6 June 1901 – 21 June 1970) was the first, serving in office from 1945 to 1967. Sukarno was the leader of his country's struggle for. He was a prominent leader of Indonesia's nationalist movement during the Dutch colonial period, and spent over a decade under Dutch detention until released by the invading forces. Singapura (nama resmi: Republik Singapura) adalah sebuah negara pulau di lepas ujung selatan Semenanjung Malaya, 137 kilometer (85 mi) di utara khatulistiwa di Asia. Ayahnyo banamo Abdul Karim Amrullah, ulama pambaru Islam di Minangkabau nan akrab dipanggil jo sabuikan Haji Rasul, samantaro amaknyo, yakni Sitti. Baliau baraja mangaji jo silek, samantaro di lua itu, baliau suko mandangakan kaba, kisah-kisah nan dinyanyikan jo alek-alek musik tradisional Minangkabau. Hal ko jiko dikaikan jo sebutan Urang Siak nan marujuak kapado urang-urang nan ahli dan tekun dalam agamo Islam, masih tetap digunoan di dataran tinggi. Kamudian parubahan struktur kerajaan jo munculnyo Pagaruyuang nan lah manerapkan Islam dalam sistem pamerintahannyo, walau sampai abad ka-16, Suma. B94qWfy4/VPiT9JqUQMI/AAAAAAAAEB8/3SeyUVP6MpE/s1600/Wali%2BSongo.jpg' alt='Sejarah Islam Di Minangkabau Pdf File' title='Sejarah Islam Di Minangkabau Pdf File' />Batik Wikipedia. Batik Javanese, Javanese pronunciation bae Indonesian batk is a technique of wax resistdyeing applied to whole cloth, or cloth. Sukarno and his fellow nationalists collaborated to garner support for the Japanese war effort from the population, in exchange for Japanese aid in spreading nationalist ideas. Upon Japanese surrender, Sukarno and declared Indonesian independence on 17 August 1945, and Sukarno was appointed as first president. He led Indonesians in resisting Dutch re-colonization efforts via diplomatic and military means until the Dutch acknowledgement of Indonesian independence in 1949. Author Pramoedya Ananta Toer once wrote 'Sukarno was the only Asian leader of the modern era able to unify people of such differing ethnic, cultural and religious backgrounds without shedding a drop of blood.' After a chaotic period of, Sukarno established an autocratic system called ' in 1957 that successfully ended the instability and rebellions which were threatening the survival of the diverse and fractious country. The early 1960s saw Sukarno veering Indonesia to the by providing support and protection to the (PKI) to the irritation of the military and. He also embarked on a series of aggressive foreign policies under the rubric of, with aid from the and. The (1965) led to the and his replacement in 1967 by one of his generals, (see ), and he remained under house arrest until his death. Contents • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Name [ ] The spelling Soekarno, based on, is still frequently used, mainly because he signed his name in the old spelling. Sukarno himself insisted on a 'u', not 'oe', but said that he had been told in school to use the Dutch style. He said that it was too difficult to change his signature, so still wrote it with an 'oe'. Official Indonesian presidential decrees from the period 1947–1968, however, printed his name using the 1947 spelling. The which serves near Jakarta, the capital of Indonesia, still uses the Dutch spelling. Indonesians also remember him as Bung Karno (Brother/Comrade Karno) or Pak Karno ('Mr. Like many, he had. According to author Pramoedya Ananta Toer in several interviews, 'bung' is an affectionate title meaning 'friend' creatively used to be an alternative way of addressing person in equal manner, as an opposite word of old-form 'tuan', 'mas' or 'bang'. He is sometimes referred to in foreign accounts as ' Achmad Sukarno', or some variation thereof. The fictitious first name may have been added by western journalists confused over someone with just a single name, or by Indonesian supporters of independence to attract support from Muslim countries. Background [ ]. Sukarno as an student in, 1916 The son of a Javanese primary school teacher, an named, and his wife from the named from regency, Sukarno was born at Jalan Pandean IV/40, (now known as ), East Java, in the (now Indonesia). He was originally named Kusno Sosrodiharjo Javanese pronunciation:. Following custom, he was renamed after surviving a childhood illness. After graduating from a native primary school in 1912, he was sent to the Europeesche Lagere School (a Dutch primary school) in. Subsequently, in 1916, Sukarno went to a (a Dutch type higher level secondary school) in, where he met, a nationalist and founder of. In 1920, Sukarno married 's daughter Siti Oetari. In 1921, he began to study (with focusing on ) at the (Bandoeng Institute of Technology), where he obtained an degree (abbreviated as 'Ir.' , a Dutch type ) in 1926. During his study in, Sukarno became romantically involved with Inggit Garnasih, the wife of Sanoesi, the owner of the boarding house where he lived as a student. Inggit was 13 years older than Sukarno. In March 1923, Sukarno divorced Siti Oetari to marry Inggit (who also divorced her husband Sanoesi). Sukarno later divorced Inggit and married Fatmawati. After graduation in 1926, Sukarno and his university friend Anwari established the architectural firm Sukarno & Anwari in, which provided planning and contractor services. Among Sukarno's architectural works are the renovated building of the Preanger Hotel (1929), where he acted as assistant to famous Dutch architect. Sukarno also designed many private houses on today's Jalan Gatot Subroto, Jalan Palasari, and Jalan Dewi Sartika in. Later on, as president, Sukarno remained engaged in architecture, designing the Proclamation Monument and adjacent Gedung Pola in; the Youth Monument ( Tugu Muda) in; the Alun-alun Monument in; the Heroes' Monument in; and also the new city of in. Atypically even among the country's small educated elite, Sukarno was fluent in several languages. In addition to the of his childhood, he was a master of, and of, and was especially strong in Dutch. He was also quite comfortable in, English,,, and, all of which were taught at his HBS. He was helped by his and. In his studies, Sukarno was 'intensely modern,' both in architecture and in politics. He despised both the traditional Javanese, which he considered 'backward' and to blame for the fall of the country under Dutch occupation and exploitation, and the practised by countries, which he termed as 'exploitation of humans by other humans' ( exploitation de l'homme par l'homme). He blamed this for the deep poverty and low levels of education of Indonesian people under the Dutch. To promote nationalistic pride amongst Indonesians, Sukarno interpreted these ideas in his dress, in his urban planning for the capital (eventually ), and in his politics, though he did not extend his taste for modern art to; he had imprisoned for their allegedly decadent lyrics despite his own reputation for womanising. For Sukarno, modernity was blind to race, neat and elegant in style, and anti-imperialist. Independence struggle [ ]. See also: Sukarno was first exposed to nationalist ideas while living under. Later, while a student in, he immersed himself in European, American, Nationalist, communist, and religious political philosophy, eventually developing his own political ideology of Indonesian-style socialist self-sufficiency. He began styling his ideas as, named after Marhaen, an Indonesian peasant he met in southern Bandung area, who owned his little plot of land and worked on it himself, producing sufficient income to support his family. In university, Sukarno began organising a study club for Indonesian students, the Algemeene Studieclub, in opposition to the established student clubs dominated by Dutch students. On 4 July 1927, Sukarno with his friends from the Algemeene Studieclub established a pro-independence party, (PNI), of which Sukarno was elected the first leader. The party advocated independence for Indonesia, and opposed imperialism and capitalism because it opined that both systems worsened the life of Indonesian people. The party also advocated and unity amongst the many different ethnicities in the, to establish a united Indonesia. Sukarno also hoped that Japan would commence a war against the western powers and that Java could then gain its independence with Japan's aid. Coming soon after the disintegration of in the early 1920s and the crushing of after their failed rebellion of 1926, PNI began to attract a large number of followers, particularly among the new university-educated youths eager for larger freedoms and opportunities denied to them in the racist and constrictive political system of Dutch colonialism. Sukarno with fellow defendants and attorneys during his trial in, 1930. PNI activities came to the attention of the colonial government, and Sukarno's speeches and meetings were often infiltrated and disrupted by agents of the colonial secret police ( Politieke Inlichtingen Dienst/PID). Eventually, Sukarno and other key PNI leaders were arrested on 29 December 1929 by Dutch colonial authorities in a series of raids throughout Java. Sukarno himself was arrested while on a visit to. During his trial at the Bandung Landraad courthouse from August to December 1930, Sukarno made a series of long political speeches attacking colonialism and imperialism, titled Indonesia Menggoegat ( ). In December 1930, Sukarno was sentenced to four years in prison, which were served in Sukamiskin prison in Bandung. His speech, however, received wide coverage by the press, and due to strong pressure from the liberal elements in both Netherlands and, Sukarno was released early on 31 December 1931. By this time, he had become a popular hero widely known throughout Indonesia. However, during his imprisonment, PNI had been splintered by oppression of colonial authorities and internal dissension. The original PNI was disbanded by the Dutch, and its former members formed two different parties; the Partai Indonesia (Partindo) under Sukarno's associate Sartono who were promoting mass agitation, and the Pendidikan Nasional Indonesia (PNI Baroe) under and, two nationalists who recently returned from studies in the Netherlands, and who were promoting a long-term strategy of providing modern education to the uneducated Indonesian populace to develop an intellectual elite able to offer effective resistance to Dutch rule. After attempting to reconcile the two parties to establish one united nationalist front, Sukarno chose to become the head of Partindo on 28 July 1932. Partindo had maintained its alignment with Sukarno's own strategy of immediate mass agitation, and Sukarno disagreed with Hatta's long-term cadre-based struggle. Hatta himself believed Indonesian independence would not occur within his lifetime, while Sukarno believed Hatta's strategy ignored the fact that politics can only make real changes through formation and utilisation of force ( machtsvorming en machtsaanwending). During this period, to support himself and the party financially, Sukarno returned to architecture, opening the bureau of Soekarno & Rooseno. He also wrote articles for the party's newspaper, Fikiran Ra'jat. While based in Bandung, Sukarno travelled extensively throughout Java to establish contacts with other nationalists. His activities attracted further attention by the Dutch PID. In mid-1933, Sukarno published a series of writings titled Mentjapai Indonesia Merdeka ('To Attain Independent Indonesia'). For this writing, he was arrested by Dutch police while visiting fellow nationalist in Jakarta on 1 August 1933. Sukarno at his home in exile,. This time, to prevent providing Sukarno with a platform to make political speeches, the hardline governor-general utilised his emergency powers to send Sukarno to internal exile without trial. In 1934, Sukarno was shipped, along with his family (including Inggit Garnasih), to the remote town of, on the island of. During his time in Flores, he utilised his limited freedom of movement to establish a children's theatre. Among its members was future politician. Due to an outbreak of malaria in Flores, the Dutch authorities decided to move Sukarno and his family to (now Bengkulu) on western coast of, in February 1938. In, Sukarno became acquainted with Hassan Din, the local head of organisation, and he was allowed to teach religious teachings at a local school owned by the. One of his students was 15-year-old, daughter of Hassan Din. He became romantically involved with Fatmawati, which he justified by stating the inability of Inggit Garnasih to produce children during their almost 20-year marriage. Sukarno was still in Bengkulu exile when the Japanese the archipelago in 1942. World War II and the Japanese occupation [ ]. See also: In early 1929, during the, Sukarno and fellow Indonesian nationalist leader (later ), first foresaw a Pacific War and the opportunity that a Japanese advance on Indonesia might present for the Indonesian independence cause. In February 1942 invaded the quickly defeating Dutch forces who marched, bussed and trucked Sukarno and his entourage three hundred kilometres from to,. They intended keeping him prisoner and shipping him to Australia, but abruptly abandoned him to save themselves upon the impending approach of Japanese forces on Padang. The Japanese had their own files on Sukarno and the Japanese commander in approached him with respect, wanting to use him to organise and pacify the Indonesians. Sukarno on the other hand wanted to use the Japanese to gain independence for Indonesia: 'The Lord be praised, God showed me the way; in that valley of the Ngarai I said: Yes, Independent Indonesia can only be achieved with Dai Nippon.For the first time in all my life, I saw myself in the mirror of Asia.' In July 1942, Sukarno was sent back to, where he re-united with other nationalist leaders recently released by the Japanese, including. There, he met the Japanese commander General, who asked Sukarno and other nationalists to galvanise support from Indonesian populace to aid Japanese war effort. 1966 report examining Sukarno's alliance between imperial Japan and the Indonesian nationalist movement Sukarno was willing to support the Japanese, in exchange for a platform for himself to spread nationalist ideas to the mass population. The Japanese, on the other hand, needed Indonesia's manpower and natural resources to help its war effort. The Japanese recruited millions of people, particularly from, to be forced labor called ' in. They were forced to build railways, airfields, and other facilities for the Japanese within Indonesia and as far away as Burma. Additionally, the Japanese requisitioned rice and other food produced by Indonesian peasants to supply their own troops, while forcing the peasantry to cultivate plants to be used as aviation fuel and lubricants. To gain cooperation from Indonesian population and to prevent resistance to these measures, the Japanese put Sukarno as head of Tiga-A mass organisation movement. In March 1943, the Japanese formed a new organisation called Poesat Tenaga Rakjat (POETERA/ Center of People's Power) under Sukarno, Hatta,, and. The aim of these organisations were to galvanise popular support for recruitment of romusha forced labor, requisitioning of food products, and to promote pro-Japanese and amongst Indonesians. Sukarno coined the term, Amerika kita setrika, Inggris kita linggis ('Let's iron America, and bludgeon the British') to promote anti-Allied sentiments. In later years, Sukarno was lastingly ashamed of his role with the romusha. Additionally, food requisitioning by the Japanese caused widespread famine in Java which killed more than one million people in 1944–1945. In his view, these were necessary sacrifices to be made to allow for future independence of Indonesia. He also was involved with the formation of (PETA) and Heiho (Indonesian volunteer army troops) via speeches broadcast on the Japanese radio and loud speaker networks across Java and Sumatra. By mid-1945 these units numbered around two million, and were preparing to defeat any Allied forces sent to re-take Java. In the meantime, Sukarno eventually divorced Inggit, who refused to accept her husband's wish for polygamy. She was provided with a house in and a pension for the rest of her life. In 1943, he married. They lived in a house in Jalan Pegangsaan Timur No. 56, confiscated from its previous Dutch owners and presented to Sukarno by the Japanese. This house would later be the venue of the in 1945. On 10 November 1943 Sukarno and Hatta were sent on a seventeen-day tour of Japan, where they were decorated by the Emperor and wined and dined in the house of Prime Minister in. On 7 September 1944, with the war going badly for the Japanese, promised independence for Indonesia, although no date was set. This announcement was seen, according to the U.S. Official history, as immense vindication for Sukarno's apparent collaboration with the Japanese. At the time considered Sukarno one of the 'foremost collaborationist leaders.' On 29 April 1945, with the fall of to American hands, the Japanese allowed for the establishment of the (BPUPK), a quasi-legislature consisting of 67 representatives from most ethnic groups in Indonesia. Sukarno was appointed as head of the BPUPK and was tasked to lead discussions to prepare the basis of a future Indonesian state. To provide a common and acceptable platform to unite the various squabbling factions in the BPUPK, Sukarno formulated his ideological thinking developed for the past twenty years into five principles. On 1 June 1945, he introduced these five principles, known as, during the joint session of the BPUPK held in the former Building (now called Gedung Pancasila). See also: and In the early morning of 17 August 1945, Sukarno returned to his house at Jalan Pegangsaan Timur No. 56, where he was joined. Throughout the morning, impromptu leaflets printed by PETA and youth elements informed the population of the impending proclamation. Finally, at 10 am, Sukarno and Hatta stepped to the front porch, where Sukarno declared the in front of a crowd of 500 people. This most historic of buildings had, however, been ordered to be demolished by Sukarno himself, without any apparent reason. On the following day, 18 August, PPKI declared the basic governmental structure of the new Republic of Indonesia: • Appointing Sukarno and as President and Vice-President and their cabinet. • Putting into effect the 1945 Indonesian, which by this time excluded any reference to Islamic law. • Setting a ( Komite Nasional Indonesia Poesat/KNIP) to assist the president prior to election of a parliament. Sukarno's vision for the 1945 Indonesian comprised the ( five principles). Sukarno's political philosophy was mainly a fusion of elements of, and. This is reflected in a proposition of his version of Pancasila he proposed to the (BPUPK) in a speech on 1 June 1945. Sukarno argued that all of the principles of the nation could be summarized in the phrase. The Indonesian parliament, founded on the basis of this original (and subsequently revised) constitution, proved all but ungovernable. This was due to irreconcilable differences between various social, political, religious and ethnic factions. In the days following the Proclamation, the news of Indonesian independence was spread by radio, newspaper, leaflets, and word of mouth despite attempts by the Japanese soldiers to suppress the news. On 19 September, Sukarno addressed a crowd of one million people at the Ikada Field of Jakarta (now part of ) to commemorate one month of independence, indicating the strong level of popular support for the new republic, at least on Java and Sumatra. In these two islands, the Sukarno government quickly established governmental control while the remaining Japanese mostly retreated to their barracks awaiting arrival of Allied forces. This period was marked by constant attacks by armed groups on Europeans, Chinese, Christians, native aristocracy and anyone who were perceived to oppose Indonesian independence. The most serious cases were the Social Revolutions in and, where large numbers of Acehnese and Malay aristocrats were killed by Islamic groups (in Aceh) and communist-led mobs (in North Sumatra), and the 'Three Regions Affair' in northwestern coast of where large numbers of Europeans, Chinese, and native aristocrats were butchered by mobs. These bloody incidences continued until late 1945 to early 1946, and begin to peter-out as Republican authorities begin to exert and consolidate control. Sukarno's government initially postponed the formation of a national army, for fear of antagonizing the Allied occupation forces and their doubt over whether they would have been able to form an adequate military apparatus to maintain control of seized territory. The members of various groups formed during Japanese occupation such as the disbanded PETA and Heiho, at that time were encouraged to join the BKR— Badan Keamanan Rakjat (The People's Security Organization)—itself a subordinate of the 'War Victims Assistance Organization'. It was only in October 1945 that the BKR was reformed into the TKR— Tentara Keamanan Rakjat (The People's Security Army) in response to the increasing Allied and Dutch presence in Indonesia. The TKR armed themselves mostly by attacking Japanese troops and confiscating their weapons. Due to the sudden transfer of Java and Sumatra from General 's American-controlled Southwest Pacific Command to 's British-controlled Southeast Asian Command, the first Allied soldiers (1st Battalion of Seaforth Highlanders) did not arrive in Jakarta until late September 1945. British forces began to occupy major Indonesian cities in October 1945. The commander of the British 23rd Division, Lieutenant General Sir, set up command in the former governor-general's palace in Jakarta. Christison stated his intentions were to free all Allied prisoners-of-war, and to allow the return of Indonesia to its pre-war status, as a colony of Netherlands. The Republican government were willing to cooperate with the release and repatriation of Allied civilian and military POWs, setting-up the Committee for the Repatriation of Japanese and Allied Prisoners of Wars and Internees ( Panitia Oeroesan Pengangkoetan Djepang dan APWI/POPDA) for this purpose. POPDA, in cooperation with the British, repatriated more than 70,000 Japanese and Allied POWs and internees by the end of 1946. However, due to the relative weakness of the military of the Republic of Indonesia, Sukarno sought independence by gaining international recognition for his new country rather than engage in battle with British and Dutch military forces. Sukarno was aware that his history as a Japanese and his leadership in the Japanese-approved during the Occupation would make the Western countries distrustful of him. To help gain international recognition as well as to accommodate domestic demands for representation, Sukarno 'allowed' the formation of a parliamentary system of government, whereby a controlled day-to-day affairs of the government, while Sukarno as president remained as figurehead. The prime minister and his cabinet would be responsible to the instead of the president. On 14 November 1945, Sukarno appointed as first prime minister; he was a European-educated politician who was never involved with the Japanese occupation authorities. In late 1945 Dutch administrators who led the Dutch East Indies government-in-exile and soldiers who had fought the Japanese began to return under the name of Netherlands Indies Civil Administration (NICA), with the protection of the British. They were led by, a colonial administrator who had evacuated to, Australia. Dutch soldiers who had been POWs under the Japanese were released and rearmed. Shooting between these Dutch soldiers and police supporting the new Republican government Indonesian and civilians soon developed. This soon escalated to armed conflict between the newly constituted Republican forces aided by a myriad of pro-independence mobs and the Dutch and British forces. On 10 November, a full-scale broke out in between the 49th Infantry Brigade and the indigenous Indonesian population. The Indians were supported by air and naval forces. Some 300 Indian soldiers were killed (including their commander Brigadier ) along with thousands of Indonesians. Shootouts broke out with alarming regularity in, including an attempted assassination of Prime Minister by Dutch gunmen. To avoid this menace, Sukarno and majority of his government left for the safety of on 4 January 1946. There, the Republican government received protection and full support from Sultan. Yogyakarta would remain as the Republic's capital until the end of the war in 1949. Remained in Jakarta to conduct negotiations with the British. The initial series of battles in late 1945 and early 1946 left the British in control of major port cities on Java and Sumatra. During the Japanese occupation, the Outer Islands (excluding Java and Sumatra) were occupied by the Japanese Navy (), who did not allow for political mobilization of the islanders. Consequently, there were little Republican activity in these islands post-proclamation. Australian and Dutch forces were able to quickly take control of these islands without much fighting by end of 1945 (excluding the resistance of in Bali, the insurgency in, and fighting in Hulu Sungai area of ). Meanwhile, the hinterland areas of Java and Sumatra remained under Republican control. Eager to pull its soldiers out of Indonesia, the British allowed for large-scale infusion of Dutch forces into the country throughout 1946. By November 1946, all British soldiers had been withdrawn from Indonesia. They were replaced with more than 150,000 Dutch soldiers. The British sent Lord and to bring the Dutch and Indonesians to the negotiating table. The result of these negotiations was the signed in November 1946, where the Dutch acknowledged Republican sovereignty over Java, Sumatra, and Madura. In exchange, the Republicans were willing to discuss a future Commonwealth-like United Kingdom of Netherlands and Indonesia. Sukarno addressing the KNIP (parliament) in, March 1947 Sukarno's decision to negotiate with the Dutch was met with strong opposition by various Indonesian factions., a politician, organised these groups into a united front called the Persatoean Perdjoangan (PP). PP offered a 'Minimum Program' which called for complete independence, nationalisation of all foreign properties, and rejection of all negotiations until all foreign troops are withdrawn. These programmes received widespread popular support, including from armed forces commander General. On 4 July 1946, military units linked with PP kidnapped Prime Minister who was visiting. Sjahrir was leading the negotiation with the Dutch. Sukarno, after successfully influencing, managed to secure the release of Sjahrir and the arrest of and other PP leaders. Disapproval of Linggadjati terms within the led Sukarno to issue a decree doubling KNIP membership by including many pro-agreement appointed members. As consequence, KNIP ratified the in March 1947. On 21 July 1947, the was broken by the Dutch, who launched, a massive military invasion into Republican-held territories. Although the newly reconstituted was unable to offer significant military resistance, the blatant violation by the Dutch of an internationally brokered agreement outraged world opinion. International pressure forced the Dutch to halt their invasion force in August 1947. Sjahrir, who has been replaced as prime minister by, flew to to appeal Indonesian case in front of. UN Security Council issued a resolution calling for immediate ceasefire, and appointed a Good Offices Committee (GOC) to oversee the ceasefire. The GOC, based in Jakarta, consisted of delegations from Australia (led by, chosen by Indonesia), Belgium (led by, chosen by Netherlands), and United States (led by, neutral). The Republic was now under strong Dutch military stranglehold, with the Dutch military occupying, and the northern coast of and, along with the key productive areas of. Additionally, the Dutch navy blockaded Republican areas from supplies of vital food, medicine, and weapons. As a consequence, Prime Minister has little choice but to sign the on 17 January 1948, which acknowledged Dutch control over areas taken during, while the Republicans pledged to withdraw all forces that remained on the other side of the ceasefire line ('). Meanwhile, the Dutch begin to organize in the areas under their occupation, to counter Republican influence utilising ethnic diversity of Indonesia. The signing of highly disadvantageous Renville Agreement caused even greater instability within the Republican political structure. In Dutch-occupied West Java, under maintained their anti-Dutch resistance and repealed any loyalty to the Republic; they caused a bloody insurgency in West Java and other areas in the first decades of independence. Prime Minister, who signed the agreement, was forced to resign in January 1948, and was replaced. Hatta cabinet's policy of rationalising the armed forces by demobilising large numbers of armed groups that proliferated the Republican areas, also caused severe disaffection. Leftist political elements, led by resurgent under took advantage of public disaffections by launching rebellion in,, on 18 September 1948. Bloody fighting continued during late-September until end of October 1948, when the last communist bands were defeated and Musso shot dead. The communists had overestimated their potential to oppose the strong appeal of Sukarno amongst the population. Sukarno and Foreign Minister in Dutch custody, 1949. On 19 December 1948, to take advantage of the Republic's weak position following the communist rebellion, the Dutch launched, a second military invasion designed to crush the Republic once and for all. The invasion was initiated with an airborne assault on Republican capital. Sukarno ordered the armed forces under to launch guerilla campaign in the countryside, while he and other key leaders such as Hatta and allowed themselves to be taken prisoner by the Dutch. To ensure continuity of government, Sukarno sent a telegram to, providing him the mandate to lead an Emergency Government of the Republic of Indonesia (PDRI), based on the unoccupied hinterlands of, a position he kept until Sukarno was released in June 1949. The Dutch sent Sukarno and other captured Republican leaders to captivity in Prapat, in Dutch-occupied part of and later to the island of. Sukarno's return to Yogyakarta in June 1949 The second Dutch invasion caused even more international outrage. The United States, impressed by Indonesia's ability to defeat the 1948 communist challenge without outside help, threatened to cut off funds to the Netherlands if military operations in Indonesia continued. TNI did not disintegrate and continued to wage guerilla resistance against the Dutch, most notably the assault on Dutch-held Yogyakarta led by on 1 March 1949. Consequently, the Dutch were forced to sign the on 7 May 1949. According to this treaty, the Dutch released the Republican leadership and returned the area surrounding to Republican control in June 1949. This was followed by the held in which led to the complete transfer of by the Queen to Indonesia, on 27 December 1949. On that day, Sukarno flew from Yogyakarta to, making a triumphant speech at the steps of the governor-general's palace, immediately renamed the ('Independence Palace'). Figurehead president [ ]. Sukarno's inauguration as president (17 December 1949, commentary in Dutch) At this time, as part of a compromise with the Dutch, Indonesia adopted a new that made the country a federal state called the Republik Indonesia Serikat (Republic of ), consisting of the Republic of Indonesia whose borders were determined by the 'Van Mook Line', along with the six states and nine autonomous territories created by the Dutch. During the first half of 1950, these states gradually dissolved themselves as the Dutch military that previously propped them up was withdrawn. In August 1950, with the last state – the – dissolving itself, Sukarno declared a Unitary Republic of Indonesia based on the newly formulated of 1950. Both the Federal Constitution of 1949 and the Provisional Constitution of 1950 were parliamentary in nature, where executive authority laid with the prime minister, and which—on paper—limited presidential power. However, even with his formally reduced role, he commanded a good deal of as. The first years of parliamentary democracy proved to be very unstable for Indonesia. Cabinets fell in rapid succession due to the acute differences between the various political parties within the. There was severe disagreements on future path of Indonesian state, between nationalists who wanted a secular state (led by first established by Sukarno), the Islamists who wanted an Islamic state (led by Party), and the communists who wanted a communist state (led by, only allowed to operate again in 1951). On the economic front, there was severe dissatisfaction with continuing economic domination by large Dutch corporations and the ethnic-Chinese. The rebels under Kartosuwirjo in West Java refused to acknowledge Sukarno's authority and declared a NII (Negara Islam Indonesia – Islamic State of Indonesia) in August 1949. Rebellions in support of Darul Islam also broke out in in 1951, and in in 1953. Meanwhile, pro-federalism members of the disbanded launched failed rebellion in ( of 1950), in in 1950, and in Ambon ( revolt of 1950). Additionally, the military was torn by hostilities between officers originating from the colonial-era, who wished for a small and elite professional military, and the overwhelming majority of soldiers who started their careers in the Japanese-formed PETA, who were afraid of being discharged and were more known for nationalist-zeal over professionalism. On 17 October 1952, the leaders of the former-KNIL faction, Army Chief Colonel and Armed Forces Chief-of-Staff mobilized their troops in a show of force. Protesting against attempts by the DPR to interfere in military business on behalf of the former-PETA faction of the military, Nasution and Simatupang had their troops surround the and point their tank turrets at the building. Their demand to Sukarno was that the current DPR be dismissed. For this cause, Nasution and Simatupang also mobilized civilian protesters. Sukarno came out of the palace and convinced both the soldiers and the civilians to go home. Nasution and Simatupang were later dismissed. Nasution, however, would be re-appointed as Army Chief after reconciling with Sukarno in 1955. In 1954, Sukarno married Hartini, a 30-year-old widow from, whom he met during a reception. His third wife, was outraged by this fourth marriage. She left Sukarno and their children, although they never officially divorced. No longer took up the duties as, a role subsequently filled by Hartini. Sukarno casting his vote at the 1955 elections The produced a new and a. The election results showed equal support for the antagonistic powers of the PNI, Masyumi,, and PKI parties. With no faction controlling a clear majority, domestic political instability continued unabated. Talks in the Constitutional Assembly to write a new constitution met with deadlock over the issue of whether to include Islamic law. On the international front, Sukarno organized the in 1955, with the goal of uniting the developing Asian and African countries into a 'non-aligned movement' to counter both the United States and the Soviet Union. Sukarno came to resent his figurehead position and the increasing disorder of the country's political life. Claiming that Western-style was unsuitable for Indonesia, he called for a system of '.' Sukarno argued that at the village level, important questions were decided by lengthy designed to achieve a, under the guidance of village elders. Sukarno argued it should be the model for the entire nation, with the president taking the role assumed by village elders. He proposed a government based not only on but on 'functional groups' composed of the nation's basic elements, which would together form a National Council, through which a national consensus could express itself under presidential guidance. Vice-President was strongly opposed to Sukarno's guided democracy concept. Citing this and other irreconcilable differences, Hatta resigned from his position in December 1956. Hatta's retirement sent a shockwave across Indonesia, particularly among the non-Javanese ethnicities, who viewed Hatta as their representative in a Javanese-dominated government. From December 1956 to January 1957, regional military commanders in North Sumatra, Central Sumatra, and South Sumatra provinces took over local government control. They declared a series of military councils which were to run their respective areas and refused to accept orders from Jakarta. A similar regional military movement took control of North Sulawesi in March 1957. They demanded the elimination of communist influence in government, equal share in government revenues, and reinstatement of the former Sukarno-Hatta duumvirate. Faced with this serious challenge to the unity of the republic, Sukarno declared ( Staat van Oorlog en Beleg) on 14 March 1957. He appointed a non-partisan prime minister, while the military was in the hands of his loyal General. Nasution increasingly shared Sukarno's views on the negative impact of western democracy on Indonesia, and he saw a greater role for the military in political life. As a reconciliatory move, Sukarno invited the leaders of the regional councils to Jakarta on 10–14 September 1957, to attend a National Conference ( Musjawarah Nasional), which failed to bring a solution to the crisis. On 30 November 1957, an attempt was made on Sukarno by way of a grenade attack while he was visiting a school function in,. Six children were killed, but Sukarno did not suffer any serious wounds. The perpetrators were members of the group, under the order of its leader. By December 1957, Sukarno began to take serious steps to enforce his authority over the country. Main article: The impressive military victories over the PRRI-Permesta rebels and the popular nationalisation of Dutch companies left Sukarno in a very strong position. On 5 July 1959, Sukarno reinstated the 1945 constitution. It established a presidential system which he believed would make it easier to implement the principles of guided democracy. He called the system Manifesto Politik or Manipol—but it was actually government by decree. Sukarno envisioned an Indonesian-style socialist society, adherent to the principle of USDEK: • Undang-Undang Dasar '45 (Constitution of 1945) • Sosialisme Indonesia (Indonesian ) • Demokrasi Terpimpin (Guided Democracy) • Ekonomi Terpimpin (). • Kepribadian Indonesia (Indonesia's Identity). The structure of Sukarno's guided democracy in 1962 In March 1960, Sukarno disbanded parliament and replaced it with a new parliament where half the members were appointed by the president ( Dewan Perwakilan Rakjat – Gotong Rojong / DPR-GR). In September 1960, he established a ( Madjelis Permusjawaratan Rakjat Sementara/MPRS) as the highest legislative authority according to the 1945 constitution. MPRS members consisted of members of DPR-GR and members of 'functional groups' appointed by the president. With the backing of the military, Sukarno disbanded the Islamic party and 's party, accusing them of involvement with PRRI-Permesta affair. The military arrested and imprisoned many of Sukarno's political opponents, from socialist to Islamic politicians and. Using martial law powers, the government closed-down newspapers who were critical of Sukarno's policies. During this period, there were several assassination attempts on Sukarno's life. On 9 March 1960, Daniel Maukar, an Indonesian airforce lieutenant who sympathised with the rebellion, strafed the and with his fighter jet, attempting to kill the president; he was not injured. In May 1962, agents shot at the president during prayers on the grounds of the palace. Sukarno again escaped injury. On the security front, the military started a series of effective campaigns which ended the long-festering Darul Islam rebellion in West Java (1962), Aceh (1962), and South Sulawesi (1965)., the leader of Darul Islam, was captured and executed in September 1962. To counterbalance the power of the military, Sukarno started to rely on the support of the (PKI). In 1960, he declared his government to be based on, a union of the three ideological strands present in Indonesian society: nasionalisme (nationalism), agama (religions), and komunisme (communism). Accordingly, Sukarno started admitting more communists into his government, while developing a strong relationship with the PKI chairman. In order to increase Indonesia's prestige, Sukarno supported and won the bid for the held in. Many sporting facilities such as the Senayan sports complex (including the 100,000-seat ) were built to accommodate the games. There was political tension when the Indonesians refused the entry of delegations from and. After the imposed sanctions on Indonesia due to this exclusion policy, Sukarno retaliated by organising a 'non-imperialist' competitor event to the, called the Games of New Emerging Forces (). GANEFO was successfully held in Jakarta in November 1963, and was attended by 2,700 athletes from 51 countries. As part of his prestige-building program, Sukarno ordered the construction of large monumental buildings such as,, Building (now the ),, and the Sarinah shopping centre to transform Jakarta from a former colonial backwater to a modern city. The modern Jakarta boulevards of Jalan Thamrin, Jalan Sudirman, and Jalan Gatot Subroto was planned and constructed under Sukarno. Foreign policy [ ]. Sukarno addresses the U.S. Congress on 17 May 1956. Sitting behind him the and. As Sukarno's domestic authority was secured, he began to pay more attention to the world stage. He embarked on a series of aggressive and assertive policies based on to increase Indonesia's international prestige. These anti-imperialist and anti-Western policies, often employing with other nations, were also designed to unite the diverse and fractious Indonesian people. In this, he was aided by his Foreign Minister. After his first visit to in 1956, Sukarno began to strengthen his ties to the People's Republic of China and the communist bloc in general. He also began to accept increasing amounts of bloc military aid. By the early 1960s, the Soviet bloc provided more aid to Indonesia than to any other non-communist country, while Soviet military aid to Indonesia was equalled only by its aid to Cuba. This large influx of communist aid prompted an increase in military aid from the and Administrations, which worried about a leftward drift should Sukarno rely too much on Soviet bloc aid. Sukarno was feted during his visit to the United States in 1956, where he addressed a joint session of. So far it was the only time any Indonesian President addresses the Congress. Soon after his first visit to America, Sukarno visited the, where he received an even more lavish welcome. Soviet Premier paid a return visit to and in 1960, where he awarded Sukarno with the. To make amends for CIA involvement in the PRRI-Permesta rebellion, U.S. President invited Sukarno to Washington, D.C. And provided Indonesia with billions of dollars in civilian and military aid. To follow up on the successful 1955, Sukarno attempted to forge a new alliance called the 'New Emerging Forces' (NEFO), as a counter to the Western superpowers dubbed the 'Old Established Forces' (OLDEFO), whom he accused of spreading 'Neo-Colonialism and Imperialism' (NEKOLIM). In 1961, Sukarno established another political alliance, called the (NAM, in Indonesia known as Gerakan Non-Blok, GNB) with Egypt's President, India's Prime Minister, 's President, and Ghana's President, in an action called The Initiative of Five (Sukarno, Nkrumah, Nasser, Tito, and Nehru). NAM was intended to provide political unity and influence for nations who wished to maintain independence from the American and Soviet superpower blocs, which were engaged in competition. Sukarno is still fondly remembered for his role in promoting the influence of newly independent countries. His name is used as a street name in, Egypt and, Morocco, and as a major square in, Pakistan. In 1956, the awarded him an. Sukarno and in 1960, Havana, Cuba In 1960 Sukarno began an aggressive foreign policy to secure Indonesian territorial claims. In August of that year, Sukarno broke off diplomatic relations with the Netherlands over the continuing failure to commence talks on the future of, as was agreed at the of 1949. In April 1961 the Dutch announced the formation of a, with the intention of creating an independent state. Sukarno declared a state of military confrontation in his Tri Komando Rakjat (TRIKORA) speech in, on 19 December 1961. He then directed military incursions into the half-island, which he referred to as. By end of 1962 3,000 Indonesian soldiers were present throughout West Irian/West Papua. A naval battle erupted in January 1962 when four Indonesian were intercepted by Dutch ships and planes off the coast of Vlakke Hoek. One Indonesian boat was sunk, killing the Naval Deputy Chief-of-Staff. Meanwhile, the Kennedy Administration worried of a continuing Indonesian shift towards communism should the Dutch hold on to West Irian/West Papua. In February 1962 travelled to the Netherlands and informed the government that the United States would not support the Netherlands in an armed conflict with Indonesia. With Soviet armaments and advisors, Sukarno planned a large-scale air- and seaborne invasion of the Dutch military headquarters of for August 1962, called Operasi Djajawidjaja. It was to be led by Major-General, the future President of Indonesia. Before these plans could be realised, Indonesia and Netherlands signed the in August 1962. The two countries agreed to implement the Bunker Plan (formulated by American diplomat ), whereby the Dutch agreed to hand over West Irian/West Papua to on 1 October 1962. UNTEA transferred the territory to Indonesian authority in May 1963. 1966 report discussing the Sukarno's political context for Konfrontasi After securing control over West Irian/West Papua, Sukarno then opposed the British-supported establishment of the in 1963, claiming that it was a neo-colonial plot by the British to undermine Indonesia. Despite Sukarno's political overtures, which found some support when leftist political elements in British Borneo territories and opposed the Federation plan and aligned themselves with Sukarno, Malaysia was established in September 1963. This was followed by the ( Konfrontasi), proclaimed by Sukarno in his Dwi Komando Rakjat (DWIKORA) speech in Jakarta on 3 May 1964. Sukarno's proclaimed objective was not, as some alleged, to annex and into Indonesia, but to establish a 'State of North Kalimantan' under the control of. From 1964 until early 1966, a limited number of Indonesian soldiers, civilians, and Malaysian communist guerrillas were sent into North Borneo and the Malay Peninsula. These forces fought with British and Commonwealth soldiers deployed to protect the nascent state of Malaysia. Indonesian agents also exploded several bombs in. Domestically, Sukarno fomented anti-British sentiment and the British Embassy was burned down. In 1964, all British companies operating in the country, including Indonesian operations of the and, were nationalized. The confrontation came to a climax during August 1964, when Sukarno authorized landings of Indonesian troops at and on the Malaysian mainland, and all-out war seemed inevitable as tensions escalated. However, the situation calmed by mid-September at the culmination of the, and after the disastrous in April 1965, Indonesian raids into Sarawak became fewer and weaker. In 1964 Sukarno commenced an anti-American campaign, which was motivated by his shift towards the communist bloc and less friendly relations with the Administration. American interests and businesses in Indonesia were denounced by government officials and attacked by -led mobs. American movies were banned, American books and albums were burned, and the Indonesian band was jailed for playing American-style music. As a result, U.S. Aid to Indonesia was halted, to which Sukarno made his famous remark, 'Go to hell with your aid'. Sukarno withdrew Indonesia from the on 7 January 1965 when, with U.S. Backing, Malaysia took a seat on. As the NAM countries were becoming split into different factions, and as fewer countries were willing to support his anti-Western foreign policies, Sukarno began to abandon his non-alignment rhetoric. Sukarno formed a new alliance with,,, and Cambodia which he called the '---- Axis'. After withdrawing Indonesia from the 'imperialist-dominated' in January 1965, Sukarno sought to establish a competitor organization to the UN called the Conference of New Emerging Forces () with support from China, who at that time was not yet a member of United Nations.With the government heavily indebted to the Soviet Union, Indonesia became increasingly dependent on China for support. Sukarno spoke increasingly of a Beijing-Jakarta axis, which would be the core of a new anti-imperialist world organization, the CONEFO. [ ] Domestic tensions [ ] Domestically, Sukarno continued to consolidate his control. He was made by the in 1963. His ideological writings on Manipol-USDEK and NASAKOM became mandatory subjects in Indonesian schools and universities, while his speeches were to be memorized and discussed by all students. All newspapers, the only station (), and the only station () were made into 'tools of the revolution' and functioned to spread Sukarno's messages. Sukarno developed a, with the capital of newly acquired renamed to and the highest peak in the country was renamed from Carstensz Pyramid to. Despite these appearances of unchallenged control, Sukarno's guided democracy stood on fragile grounds due to the inherent conflict between its two underlying support pillars, the military and the communists. The military, nationalists, and the Islamic groups were shocked by the rapid growth of the communist party under Sukarno's protection. They feared an imminent establishment of a communist state in Indonesia. By 1965, the had 3 million members, and were particularly strong in and. PKI had become the strongest party in Indonesia. The military and nationalists were growing wary of Sukarno's close alliance with communist China, which they thought compromised Indonesia's sovereignty. Elements of the military disagreed with Sukarno's policy of confrontation with Malaysia, which in their view only benefited communists, and sent several officers (including future Armed Forces Chief ) to spread secret peace-feelers to the Malaysian government. The Islamic clerics, who were mostly landowners, felt threatened by PKI's land confiscation actions ( aksi sepihak) in the countryside and by the communist campaign against the 'seven village devils', a term used for landlords or better-off farmers (similar to the anti- campaign in era). Both groups harbored deep disdain for PKI in particular due to memories of the bloody. As the mediator of the three groups under the NASAKOM system, Sukarno displayed greater sympathies to the communists. The PKI had been very careful to support all of Sukarno's policies. Meanwhile, Sukarno saw the PKI as the best-organised and ideologically solid party in Indonesia, and a useful conduit to gain more military and financial aid from countries. Sukarno also sympathised with the communists' revolutionary ideals, which were similar to his own. To weaken the influence of the military, Sukarno rescinded martial law (which gave wide-ranging powers to the military) in 1963. In September 1962, he 'promoted' the powerful General Nasution to the less-influential position of Armed Forces Chief, while the influential position of Army Chief was given to Sukarno's loyalist. Meanwhile, the position of Air Force Chief was given to, who was an open communist sympathiser. In May 1964, Sukarno banned activities of Manifesto Kebudajaan (Manikebu), an association of artists and writers which included prominent Indonesian writers such as Hans Bague Jassin and Wiratmo Soekito, who were also dismissed from their jobs. Manikebu was considered a rival by the communist writer's association (Lekra), led. In December 1964, Sukarno disbanded the Badan Pendukung Soekarnoisme (BPS), the 'Association for Promoting Sukarnoism', an organisation that sought to oppose communism by invoking Sukarno's own formulation. In January 1965, Sukarno, under pressure from PKI, banned the. Murba was a party whose ideology was antagonistic to PKI's orthodox line of Marxism. Tensions between the military and communists increased in April 1965, when PKI chairman called for the formation of a 'fifth armed force' consisting of armed peasants and labor. Sukarno approved this idea and publicly called for the immediate formation of such a force on 17 May 1965. However, this idea was rejected by Army Chief and Defence Minister Nasution, as this was tantamount to allowing the PKI to establish its own armed forces. Soon after this rejection, on 29 May, the ' appeared. The letter was supposedly written by the British ambassador Andrew Gilchrist to the in London, mentioning a joint American and British attempt on subversion in Indonesia with the help of 'local army friends'. This letter, produced by, aroused Sukarno's fear of a military plot to overthrow him, a fear which he mentioned repeatedly during the next few months. The agent Ladislav Bittman who defected in 1968 claimed that his agency () forged the letter on request from PKI via Soviet Union, to smear anti-communist generals. On his independence day speech of 17 August 1965, Sukarno declared his intention to commit Indonesia to an anti-imperialist alliance with China and other communist regimes, and warned the Army not to interfere. He also stated his support for the establishment of 'fifth force' of armed peasants and labor. While Sukarno devoted his energy to domestic and international politics, the was neglected and deteriorated rapidly. The government printed money to finance its military expenditures, resulting in exceeding 600% per annum in 1964–1965. Smuggling and collapse of export plantation sectors deprived the government of much-needed foreign exchange income. Consequently, the government was unable to service massive foreign debts it accumulated from both Western and Communist bloc countries. Most of the government budget was spent on the military, resulting in deterioration of infrastructure such as roads, railways, ports, and other public facilities. Deteriorating transportation infrastructure and poor harvests caused food shortages in many places. The small industrial sector languished and only produced at 20% capacity due to lack of investment. Sukarno himself was contemptuous of, and was unable and unwilling to provide practical solutions to the poor economic condition of the country. Instead, Sukarno produced more ideological conceptions such as Trisakti: political sovereignty, economic self-sufficiency, and cultural independence. He advocated Indonesians to be 'standing on their own feet' ( berdikari) and reach economic self-sufficiency, free from foreign influence. Towards the end of his rule, Sukarno's lack of interest in economics created a distance between himself and the Indonesian people, who were suffering economically. His face had become bloated by disease and his flamboyance and sexual conquests – which had once endeared him to the people – caused public criticism and turned support towards the army. Removal from power and death [ ]. Main article: On the dawn of 1 October 1965, six of Indonesia's most senior army generals were and murdered by a movement calling themselves the ' (G30S). Among those killed was, while Nasution narrowly escaped, but the movement kidnapped, his military aide; presumably mistaking him for General Nasution in the darkness. The G30S Movement consisted of members of the Presidential Guards, Brawidjaja Division, and Diponegoro Division, under the command of a Lieutenant-Colonel Untung bin Sjamsuri, a known communist sympathiser who participated in the 1948 PKI rebellion. The movement took control of the radio station and the. They broadcast a statement declaring the kidnappings were meant to protect Sukarno from a coup attempt by -influenced generals. Later, it broadcast news of the disbandment of Sukarno's cabinet, to be replaced by a 'Revolutionary Council'. In Central Java, soldiers associated with the Movement also seized control of and on 1–2 October, killing two in the process. Major General, commander of the Army's strategic reserve command, took control of the army the following morning. Suharto ordered troops to take over the radio station of Radio Republik Indonesia and Merdeka Square itself. On the afternoon of that day, Suharto issued an ultimatum to the Halim Air Force Base, where the G30S had based themselves and where Sukarno (the reasons for his presence are unclear and were subject of claim and counter-claim), Air Marshal Omar Dhani, and PKI chairman Aidit had gathered. By the following day, it was clear that the incompetently organised and poorly coordinated coup had failed. Sukarno took up residence in the, while Omar Dhani fled to and Aidit to. By 2 October, Suharto's soldiers occupied Halim Air Force Base, after a short gunfight. Sukarno's obedience to Suharto's 1 October ultimatum to leave Halim is seen as changing all power relationships. Sukarno's fragile balance of power between the military, political Islam, communists, and nationalists that underlay his ' was now collapsing. On 3 October, the corpses of the kidnapped generals were discovered near the Halim Air Force Base, and on 5 October they were buried in a public ceremony led. In early October 1965, a military propaganda campaign began to sweep the country, successfully convincing both Indonesian and international audiences that it was a Communist coup, and that the murders were cowardly atrocities against Indonesian heroes since those who were shot were veteran military officers. The PKI's denials of involvement had little effect. Following the discovery and public burial of the generals' corpses on 5 October, the army along with Islamic organisations and, led a campaign to purge Indonesian society, government and armed forces of the communist party and other leftist organisations. Leading PKI members were immediately arrested, some summarily executed. Aidit was captured and killed in November 1965. With the worst massacres in Java and Bali. In some areas the army organised civilian groups and local militias, in other areas communal vigilante action preceded the army. The most widely accepted estimates are that at least half a million were killed. It is thought that as many as 1.5 million were imprisoned at one stage or another. As a result of the purge, one of Sukarno's three pillars of support, the Indonesian Communist Party, had been effectively eliminated by the other two, the military and political Islam. The killings and the failure of his tenuous 'revolution' distressed Sukarno and he tried unsuccessfully to protect the PKI by referring to the generals' killings as een rimpeltje in de oceaan ('ripple in the sea of the revolution'). He tried to maintain his influence appealing in a January 1966 broadcast for the country to follow him. Subandrio sought to create a Sukarnoist column ( Barisan Sukarno), which was undermined by Suharto's pledge of loyalty to Sukarno and the concurrent instruction for all those loyal to Sukarno to announce their support for the army. On 1 October 1965, Sukarno appointed General Pranoto Reksosamudro as Army Chief to replace the dead Ahmad Yani, but he was forced to give this position to Suharto two weeks later. In February 1966, Sukarno reshuffled his cabinet, sacking Nasution as Defence Minister and abolishing his position of armed forces chief of staff, but Nasution refused to step down. Beginning in January 1966, university students started demonstrating against Sukarno, demanding the disbandment of PKI and for the government to control spiraling inflation. In February 1966, student demonstrators in front of were shot at by Presidential Guards, killing the student Arief Rachman Hakim, who was quickly turned into a martyr by student demonstrators. A meeting of Sukarno's full cabinet was held at the on 11 March 1966. As students were demonstrating against the administration, unidentified troops began to assemble outside. Sukarno, Subandrio and another minister immediately left the meeting and went to the by helicopter. Three pro-Suharto generals (,, and ) were dispatched to the Bogor palace and they met with Sukarno who signed for them a Presidential Order known as. Through the order, Sukarno assigned Suharto to 'take all measures considered necessary to guarantee security, calm and stability of the government and the revolution and to guarantee the personal safety and authority [of Sukarno]'. The authorship of the document, and whether Sukarno was forced to sign, perhaps even at gunpoint, is a point of historic debate. The effect of the order, however, was the transfer of authority to Suharto. After obtaining the Presidential Order, Suharto had the PKI declared illegal and the party was abolished. He also arrested many high-ranking officials that were loyal to Sukarno on the charge of being PKI members and/or sympathizers, further reducing Sukarno's political power and influence. The, now purged from communist and pro-Sukarno elements, began proceedings to Sukarno on the grounds of the following: • Toleration and violation of the constitution by supporting PKI's international communist agenda • Negligence of the economy • Promotion of national 'moral degradation' by Sukarno's blatant womanising behaviour. April 1967 report of the political tensions at end of the Sukarno era On 22 June 1966, Sukarno made the Nawaksara speech in front of the MPRS session, an unsuccessful last-ditch attempt to defend himself and his guided democracy system. In August 1966, over Sukarno's objections, Indonesia ended its confrontation with Malaysia and rejoined the. After making another unsuccessful accountability speech (Nawaksara Addendum) on 10 January 1967, Sukarno was stripped of his president-for-life title by on 12 March 1967, in a session chaired by his former ally, Nasution. He was put under in Bogor Palace, where his health deteriorated due to denial of adequate medical care. He died of in Jakarta Army Hospital on 21 June 1970 at age 69. He was buried in,, Indonesia. Sukarno with Fatmawati and five of their children. Clockwise from center: Sukarno, Sukmawati, Fatmawati, Guruh, Megawati, Guntur, Rachmawati Sukarno was of and descent. Sukarno married Siti Oetari in 1920, and divorced her in 1923 to marry Inggit Garnasih, whom he divorced c. 1943 to marry Fatmawati. Sukarno also married Hartini in 1954, after which he and Fatmawati separated without divorcing. In 1959, he was introduced to the then 19-year-old Japanese hostess Naoko Nemoto, whom he married in 1962 and renamed Ratna. Sukarno also married four other spouses: Haryati (1963–1966); Kartini Manoppo (1959–1968); Yurike Sanger (1964–1968); Heldy Djafar (1966–1969)., who served as the fifth president of Indonesia, is his daughter by his wife. Her younger brother (born 1953) has inherited Sukarno's artistic bent and is a and, who made a movie Untukmu, Indonesiaku (For You, My Indonesia) about Indonesian culture. He is also a member of the Indonesian for Megawati's. His siblings Guntur Sukarnoputra, Rachmawati Sukarnoputri and Sukmawati Sukarnoputri have all been active in politics. Sukarno had a daughter named Kartika. In 2006 Kartika Sukarno married Frits Seegers, the Netherlands-born chief executive officer of the Global Retail and Commercial Bank. Other offspring include Taufan and Bayu by his wife Hartini, and a son named Toto Suryawan Sukarnoputra (born 1967, in Germany), by his wife Kartini Manoppo. Honours [ ] Sukarno was awarded twenty-six from various international universities including, the, the, the, the, the and many more, and also from domestic universities including the, the, the, and the. He had often been referred to by at the time as 'Dr. Sukarno', combined with his degree in architecture () from. In popular culture [ ] Books [ ] • Kuantar Ke Gerbang, an Indonesian novel by Ramadhan KH, tells the story of romantic relationship between Sukarno and Inggit Garnasih, his second wife. Songs [ ] • A song titled 'Untuk Paduka Jang Mulia Presiden Sukarno' (To His Excellency President Sukarno) was written in early 60s by Soetedjo and popularized by, a famous Indonesian female soloist. The lyrics are full with expression of praise and gratitude to the then President-for-life. Movies [ ] • actor Mike Emperio portrayed Sukarno in the 1982 movie directed by as adapted from a novel of same name written. • Indonesian sociologist and writer portrayed Sukarno in the two 1982 movies and Djakarta 66 directed. • Indonesian actor portrayed Sukarno in the 1997 movie Blanco, The Colour of Love (compacted from its original TV serial version, Api Cinta Antonio Blanco) about Spanish painter who settled and resided in,. • Indonesian actor Soultan Saladin portrayed Sukarno in the 2005 movie, directed by, about the life of student activist. • Indonesian actor is set to portray Sukarno in a planned movie 9 Reasons, telling the stories of nine women in the life of the founding father: Oetari (portrayed by ); Inggit Garnasih (); (); Hartini (Lola Amaria); Haryati; Kartini Manoppo (Wulan Guritno); Ratna Sari Dewi (); and Yurike Sanger (). Uniquely, also has portrayed Sukarno's erstwhile colleague and eventual successor,, in another 2012 historical biopic, Habibie dan Ainun. • Indonesian actor portrayed Sukarno in the 2013 movie directed by, about the his life from birth until Indonesian independence from Japanese occupation. • Indonesian actor portrayed Sukarno in the 2013 movie Ketika Bung di Ende, focusing on time and life of Sukarno during his exile in,. • Indonesian actor and TV-personality Dave Mahendra portrayed Sukarno in the 2015 movie Guru Bangsa: Tjokroaminoto, a biopic of, an Indonesian nationalist who is often credited as mentor to many prominent figures in the nation's fight to independence, including Sukarno himself. See also [ ]. References [ ] General [ ] • Kahin, Audrey R. And George McT. Subversion as Foreign Policy: The Secret Eisenhower and Dulles Debacle in Indonesia, The New Press, 1995. • Blum, William. Killing Hope: U.S. Military and CIA Interventions Since World War II, Black Rose, 1998, pp. 193–198 • U.S. Central Intelligence Agency, Research Study: Indonesia—The Coup that Backfired, 1968, p. 71n. • Bob Hering, 2001, Soekarno, architect of a nation, 1901–1970, KIT Publishers Amsterdam,, Leiden, • Hughes, John (2002), The End of Sukarno – A Coup that Misfired: A Purge that Ran Wild, Archipelago Press, •, 1995, Memoar Oei Tjoe Tat: Pembantu Presiden Soekarno(The memoir of Oei Tjoe Tat, assistant to President Sukarno), Hasta Mitra, (banned in Indonesia) • Lambert J. Giebels, 1999, Soekarno. Nederlandsch onderdaan. Biografie 1901–1950. Biography part 1, Bert Bakker Amsterdam, • Lambert J. Giebels, 2001, Soekarno. President, 1950–1970, Biography part 2, Bert Bakker Amsterdam, geb., pbk. Giebels, 2005, De stille genocide: de fatale gebeurtenissen rond de val van de Indonesische president Soekarno, • Legge, John David. Sukarno: A Political Biography • Ricklefs, M.C. A History of Modern Indonesia since c. • Panitia Nasional Penyelenggara Peringatan HUT Kemerdekaan RI ke-XXX (National Committee on 30th Indonesian Independence Anniversary), 1979, 30 Tahun Indonesia Merdeka (I: 1945–1949) (30 Years of Independent Indonesia (Part I:1945–1949), Tira Pustaka, Jakarta Notes [ ]. Setiadi (2013), Soekarno Bapak Bangsa, Yogyakarta: Palapa, pp. • Perpustakaan Nasional Republik Indonesia • Pramoedya ananta Toer, SOEKARNO, TIME Asia story TIME 100: AUGUST 23–30, 1999 VOL. 7/8, • Sukarno; Adams, Cindy (1965). Sukarno: An Autobiography. • Bung is an term of endearment analogous to 'older brother', Pak is used more formally as 'sir' or 'father'. • ^ Steven Drakeley, University of Western Sydney •. • Amir Tejo; Putri Prameshwari.. Jakarta Globe. • (in Indonesian). Biografi Tokoh. • Ludwig M., Arnold (2004). King of the Mountain: The Nature of Political Leadership. University Press of Kentucky.. • Mrazek, Rudolf (2002). Engineers of Happy Land: Technology and Nationalism in a Colony. Princeton University Press. Pp. 60–1, 123, 125, 148, 156, 191..; Kusno, Abidin (2000). Behind the Postcolonial: Architecture, Urban Space and Political Cultures. • ^ Adams, Cindy (1965). Sukarno, An Autobiography. The Bobbs-Merrill Company Inc. • Sukarno; Adams, Cindy (1965). Sukarno: An Autobiography. P. 92.; Legge, John David. Sukarno: A Political Biography. Singapore: Archipelago Press. • Friend, Theodore (2003). Indonesian Destinies. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. • Friend, Theodore (1988). The Blue-Eyed Enemy: Japan Against the West in Java and Luzon 1942–1945. Princeton University Press. Retrieved 14 February 2011. • Sukarno (1965). Sukarno: An Autobiography. Cited in Friend, Theodore (2003). Indonesian Destinies. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. P. 29..; Adams, Cindy (1967). My Friend the Dictator. • Ricklefs (1991), page 207 •. Country Studies, Indonesia. Library of Congress. • Kolko, Gabriel. The Politics of War. Page 607 • ^ Smith, Roger M (ed) (1974). Southeast Asia. Documents of Political Development and Change. Ithaca and London. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list () • Mulyawan Karim (August 18, 2009). 'Misteri Pembongkaran Gedung Proklamasi / Mistery of Bemolishing Proclamation Building'. KOMPAS daily: 27. • Emmerson, Donald K. (ed.) (1999). Indonesia Beyond Suharto: Polity, Economy, Society, Transition. Armonk, New York: M.E. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (), section: Robert Cribb, ‘Nation: Making Indonesia’ • MacMillan, Richard (2006). The British Occupation of Indonesia 1945–1946. New York: Routledge.. • Poeze, Harry (2009). Tan Malaka, Gerakan Kiri, dan Revolusi Indonesia. Jakarta: KITLV. Retrieved 14 February 2011. • Kinzer, Stephen (2013). The Brothers: John Foster Dulles, Allen Dulles, and Their Secret World War. New York: Times Books. • van de Kerkhof, 2005, p. 28-31 • Roadnight, Andrew (2002). United States Policy towards Indonesia in the Truman and Eisenhower Years. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.. • Kinzer, Stephen (2013). The Brothers: John Foster Dulles, Allen Dulles, and Their Secret World War. New York: Times Books. • Goldstein, Robert Justin (2001).. Taylor & Francis.. • Anwar, Rosihan (2006). (in Indonesian). Yayasan Obor Indonesia.. • Hunter, Helen-Louise (2007).. Greenwood Publishing Group.. Retrieved 14 February 2011. Retrieved 2017-05-18. • ^ Hughes (2002), p. 21 • Mortimer, Rex (2006). Indonesian Communism under Sukarno, 1959–1965. • Dake, Antonie (2006). Sukarno Files. Yayasan Obor. • Adams, Cindy (1965). Bung Karno, My Friend. • Vickers, Adrian (2012). Bali – A Paradise Created. • Ricklefs (1991), p. • ^ Ricklefs (1991), pp. • Friend (2003), p. • ^ Vickers (2005), p. • ^ Ricklefs (1991), p. • Vickers (2005), pages 158–159 • Ricklefs (1991), p. 288; Friend (2003), p. 113; Vickers (2005), p. 159; Robert Cribb (2002). 'Unresolved Problems in the Indonesian Killings of 1965–1966'. Asian Survey. 42 (4): 550–563.. • Vickers (2005), pp. • Ricklefs (1991), p. 5 April 1997. Retrieved 14 February 2011. 10 March 1958. Retrieved 20 April 2009. • Mydans, Seth (17 February 1998).. The New York Times. Retrieved 20 April 2009. • ',' • ',' • (PDF). Retrieved 2013-09-07. External links [ ] Wikiquote has quotations related to: has media related to. • Bahasa Perancis berkongsi taraf rasmi di; berkongsi taraf rasmi di dan; Bahasa Jerman dan berkongsi taraf rasmi di. • Sebelum 2002,. Euro diterima di, tetapi matawang rasmi di situ ialah. • Domain juga digunakan kerana dikongsi bersama negara-negara anggota yang lain. • Untuk memanggil, perlunya mendail kod Switzerland (+41). Itali (: Italia ), nama rasmi: Republik Itali (: Repubblica italiana ), ialah sebuah negara yang terletak di selatan tengah. Itali bersempadan dengan,, dan sepanjang pergunungan di utara; di selatan wilayahnya merangkumi seluruh,, – dua pulau terbesar di – dan banyak lagi pulau kecil. Negara-negara berdaulat dan merupakan dalam wilayah Itali, manakala merupakan Itali di Switzerland. Wilayah Itali berkeluasan 301,338 (116,347 ) dan dipengaruhi oleh. Dengan 60.4 juta orang penduduk, Itali merupakan, dan teramai di dunia., selaku ibu negara Itali, merupakan pusat politik selama berabad-abad lamanya sebagai ibu kota. Setelah, Itali menahan serangan demi serangan daripada bangsa asing, baik seperti dan, mahupun dan, antara lainnya. Berabad-abad kemudian, Itali menjadi tempat kelahiran, sebuah pergerakan cendekiawan yang sangat berhasil dan terbukti penting dalam pembentukan hala tuju pemikiran Eropah pada zaman seterusnya. Sepanjang sejarahnya pasca Empayar Rom, Itali terpecah-belah kepada berbilang negara dan negeri kota (seperti, dan ), tetapi akhirnya pada tahun 1861, ekoran peristiwa pergolakan yang dikenali sebagai ' ' ('Kebangkitan Semula'). Mulai akhir abad ke-19, melepasi hinggalah, Itali memiliki sebuah yang menjangkau,,,,,, dan sebuah tanah konsesi di, China. Negara Itali moden merupakan sebuah republik demokrasi yang menduduki tangga ke-23 negara termaju di dunia dan juga tangga ke-10. Itali menikmati serta. Itali merupakan negara pengasas pertubuhan yang kini dikenali sebagai dan sebahagian. Itali juga menganggotai pertubuhan, dan. Ia juga mencatat, dan di dunia. Itali juga menganggotai,,, dan. Itali mempunyai dan berkongsi. Itali memainkan peranan penting dalam hal-ehwal, dan Eropah dan global. Pengaruh politik, sosial dan ekonomi di Eropah menjadikannya sebuah besar di samping United Kingdom, Perancis, Jerman dan Rusia. Negara ini menikmati,, serta tarafnya sebagai sebuah negara yang amat. Bangunan di Rom, ca. Kerja-kerja ekskavasi di seluruh Itali membuktikan kehadiran manusia moden yang begitu lama sejak zaman, sekitar 200,000 tahun dahulu. Apabila manusia mula bertamadun di rantau Itali, mereka berpecah menjadi kaum-kaum yang ketara sekali perbezaan bahasa dan budaya, seperti, dan. Lambat-laun, kaum Latin paling mendominasi di rantau Itali kerana membina kota yang menjadi paling berpengaruh pada abad ke-4 SM, lantas membina sebuah yang meliputi hampir seluruh benua Eropah dan rantau sekitar Laut Mediterranean, termasuk sekali bergabung dengan tamadun untuk bersama-sama meninggalkan pusaka yang kaya dalam bidang,, dan buat tamadun Barat hingga kini. Malangnya, Empayar Rom merosot sekitar abad ke-4 lalu berpecah menjadi negeri-negeri bebas yang saling berbalahan, lebih-lebih lagi di semenanjung Itali, dan keadaan ini berlarutan sepanjang hingga kedatangan dan zaman moden. Walaupun di tengah-tengah kacau-bilau itu, namun terdapat sesetengah negeri yang boleh membangun dengan perdagangan, yakni empat ' (,, dan ) yang giat berdagang dengan negara Timur. Walaupun belum bersatu menjadi sebuah negara, namun Itali terkenal sebagai bangsa pelopor yang bertarikh lewat abad ke-13 hingga awal abad ke-17. Dengan inilah lahirnya bermacam-macam tokoh pelbagai bidang yang berjasa besar kepada tamadun moden awal Eropah dan masih tampak kesannya pada zaman sekarang, misalnya sasterawan-sasterawan seperti (yang dikatakan memulakan seluruh Gerakan Pembaharuan) dan (terkenal dengan ); pelukis-pelukis seperti dan, dan juga tokoh sains dan teknologi seperti dan. Namun di sebalik pencapaian ini, rantau Itali tetap berdepan dengan penaklukan bangsa luar seperti naungan (1559–1796) dan (1796–1814); diburukkan lagi oleh wabak-wabak yang meragut sekitar sejuta nyawa penduduk Itali pada abad ke-14 hingga ke-17. Pada tahun 1861, setelah banyak mengharungi peperangan dengan kuasa-kuasa asing, barulah lahirnya sebuah pergerakan penyatuan Itali yang terdiri daripada bekas jajahan atau naungan empayar asing di bawah sebuah, berkat usaha nasionalis dan monarkis Itali yang taat setia kepada untuk menubuhkan sebuah negara bersatu yang meliputi seluruh, sehingga mampu mencabar kekuasaan. Mula-mula beribu kota di, pada tahun 1965 ibu negara Itali berpindah ke. Apabila Itali berjaya merampas daripada, barulah ibu negara Itali yang bersatu sepenuhnya diletakkan di kota. Negara Itali yang baru itu mengamalkan sistem demokrasi yang dikuasai oleh golongan liberal (namun wanita dan golongan tidak berada dilarang daripada mengundi), di samping oleh ekonomi yang berkembang pesat, tetapi terlalu tertumpu kepada bahagian utara sehingga para penduduk bahagian selatan terpaksa berhijrah ke kawasan utara itu atau ke luar negara. Di kemuncak arah aliran memuncak pada tahun 1913, seramai 872,598 orang meninggalkan negara itu ke negara-negara seperti dan. Di akhir abad ke-19, Itali menjadi sebuah kuasa penjajah yang mula-mula menguasai,, (di Afrika) dan (di Yunani). Itali berkecimpung dalam atas janji menerima,,, dan utara dari serta sebahagian wilayah, walaupun ini menyebabkan seramai 650,000 orang askar Itali gugur dan keruntuhan ekonomi negara. Selepas perang, Itali memperoleh sebahagian besar wilayah yang dijanjikan, kecuali Dalmatia yang diberikan kepada. Benito Mussolini. Kemusnahan ekonomi dan sosial akibat Perang Dunia Pertama mendorong sesetengah rakyat Itali cenderung beralih arah kepada yang dipimpin oleh. Parti tersebut berjaya mendirikan pemerintahan diktator yang rupa-rupanya tidak menyebelahi keadilan politik dan hak asasi manusia. Kerajaan Mussolini berpakat dengan dan, kemudian lalu terjebak dalam di sisi pada tahun 1940. Kerajaan Fasis meluaskan empayar jajahan Itali ke, dan jajahan di Somalia. Akhirnya, Itali ditewaskan oleh musuhnya, Pihak Berikat pada Julai 1943 lalu digulingkannya kerajaan Fasis dan kehilangan semua jajahannnya di Afrika. Pada sisa-sisa Perang Dunia Kedua, Itali berpihak dengan pihak Berikat untuk menumpaskan Jerman Nazi pada tahun 1945. Pada tahun 1946, sebuah yang diadakan pada 2 Jun 1946 memutuskan bahawa dan mengusir kerabat dirajanya. Ini juga kali pertama kaum wanita Itali diberi hak mengundi. Berkat bantuan negara luar, ekonomi Itali pascaperang bangkit daripada kehancuran untuk menjadi ekonomi paling pesat pada 1950-an dan 1960-an. Sepanjang, pemerintahan Itali dikuasai oleh parti haluan kanan yang disokong oleh kebimbangan rakyat akan pengaruh, di samping itu, Itali menyertai, dan pada tahun 1957, ia menjadi anggota pengasas yang berubah menjadi (EU) pada tahun 1993. Geografi [| ]. Peta topografi Itali Itali terletak di Eropah Selatan dan terdiri daripada yang berbentuk kasut but dan pulau-pulau kecil, termasuk dan yang terbesar. Ia terletak di antara garis panjang 35° dan 48° U, dan garis bujur 6° dan 19° T. Walaupun Itali menduduki seluruh semenanjung Itali dan sebahagian besar lembangan Alps selatan, namun terdapat sebilangan wilayah Itali yang menjangkau lembangan Alps di samping beberapa pulau yang terletak di luar pentas benua. Wilayah-wilayah ini ialah comuni,,, (separa),,, (separa), ketujuh-tujuhnya di lembangan saliran; di lembangan dan comune pulau di Afrika. Jumlah keluasan negara ini ialah 301,230 km², iaitu 294,020 km² daratan dan 7,210 km² perairan. Termasuk sekali pulau-pulaunya, Itali mempunyai garis tepi pantai dan sempadan sepanjang 7,600 km di laut-laut,, (740 km), dan sempadan yang dikongsi dengan Perancis (488 km), Austria (430 km), Slovenia (232 km) dan Switzerland; selebihnya dengan enklaf San Marino (39 km) dan Kota Vatikan (3.2 km). Membentuk tulang belakang semenanjung manakala banjaran membentuk sempadan utaranya, di mana puncak tertinggi di Itali terletak di (4,810 m/15,782 kaki)., sungai terpanjang di Itali (652 km/405 batu), mengalir dari sempadan barat dengan Perancis di Alps lalu merentasi hingga ke Laut Adriatik. Lima tasik terbesar di Itali ialah (dari besar hingga kecil): (367.94 km 2 or 142 bt 2 ), (212.51 km 2 or 82 bt 2 ), (145.9 km 2 or 56 bt 2 ), (124.29 km 2 or 48 bt 2 ) dan (113.55 km 2 or 44 bt 2 ). Negara ini terletak di titik pertemuan Plat Eurasia dan Plat Afrika, maka ia mengalami banyak aktiviti seismik dan. Terdapat, tiga daripadanya adalah hidup: (tempat yang dikatakan terletaknya bengkel tukang besi dewa ), dan. Vesuvius ialah satu-satunya gunung berapi yang hidup di tanah besar Eropah dan digeruni kerana memusnahkan kota dan. Beberapa pulau dan bukit di Itali adalah hasil kegiatan gunung berapi, dan masih terdapat sebuah besar yang aktif, iaitu di barat laut Naples. Pembahagian pentadbiran [| ]. Rencana utama: Iklim Itali beraneka ragamnya, dan bergantung pada keadaan setempat, ia mungkin jauh bezanya dengan stereotaip. Kebanyakan kawasan utara pedalaman di Itali, misalnya, dan, mempunyai iklim yang disifatkan sebagai kebenuaan lembap atau sederhana. Adriana Rigutti (dalam Meteorologia, Giunti 2005) menyatakan bahawa iklim “kawasan lembah Po [adalah] kebenuaan. Dengan musim sejuk yang teruk dan musim panas yang terik”. Kawasan pantai dan sebahagian besar semenanjung di selatan amat sepadan dengan kelaziman iklim Mediterranean ( Csa). Keadaan di kawasan pantai semenanjung amat berbeza dengan kawasan tanah tinggi dan lembah di pedalaman, terutamanya pada musim sejuk apabila di kawasan tinggi amat sejuk, lembap dan bersalji. Kawasan pantai pula mengalami musim sejuk yang ringan dan musim panas yang hangat dan kering pada amnya, namun di lembah pamah juga agak panas pada musim panas. Alam sekitar [| ]. Pantai timur,. Setelah pesat berkembang dalam sektor industri, Itali mengambil masa yang agak lama untuk berdepan dengan masalah alam sekitarnya. Setelah beberapa peningkatan, Itali kini menduduki tangga ke-84 di dunia dari segi kemapanan ekonomi. 5% daratan negara diliputi oleh. Sejak tahun 2000, Itali menjadi salah sebuah pengeluar yang terbesar di dunia, termasuklah menjadi pengeluar kelima terbesar di dunia pada tahun 2009 dan pengeluar keenam terbesar pada tahun 2008. Walaupun begitu, pencemaran udara masih menjadi isu yang serius, terutamanya di bahagian utara yang kuat berindustri, sehingga menjadi negara pelepas karbon dioksida ke-10 tertinggi di seluruh dunia pada 1990-an. Kini, Itali merupakan pengeluar ke-12 tertinggi. Lalulintas yang berat dan kesesakan di kawasan-kawasan kota raya terbesar masih menjadi punca isu alam sekitar dan kesihatan yang mendesak, meskipun tahap asbut banyak menurun sejak 1970-an dad 80-an, dan pencemaran asbut ini semakin jarang dialami di samping pengurangan tahap. Sebilangan besar saluran air dan tepi pantau juga dicemari oleh kegiatan industri dan pertanian, manakala kota sering mengalami banjir akhir-akhir ini kesan kenaikan paras air. Sisa buangan kegiatan perkilangan tidak semestinya dilupuskan secara di sisi undang-undang dan telah mengakibatkan kesan kesihatan yang berlarutan pada para penduduk kawasan terjejas, seperti mana dalam kes. Negara ini juga mengendali beberapa buah reaktor nuklear sejak tahun 1963 hingga 1990, tetapi ekoran dan, program nuklear Itali akhirnya berkubur, tetapi keputusan itu dibatalkan oleh kerajaan pada tahun 2008. Itali menandatangani perjanjian dengan Perancis untuk membina sebanyak empat buah loji nuklear pada tahun 2009. Pembasmian hutan, projek pembangunan haram dan dasar-dasar pengurusan tanah yang tidak cekap telah menyebabkan hakisan pergunungan di serata Itali, sehingga mengakibatkan bencana ekologi yang dahsyat seperti banjir 1963, dan gelongsoran lumpur di (1998) dan di (2009). Politik [| ]. Sistem politik Itali merupakan republik yang disertai oleh. Dilaksanakan bersama oleh Majlis Menteri-Menteri yang diketuai oleh seorang ( Presidente del Consiglio dei Ministri) yang juga digelar primo ministro (“perdana menteri”). Terletak pada dua dewan terutama sekali, diikuti oleh Majlis Menteri-Menteri. Cabang pula bebas daripada pengaruh eksekutif dan perundangan. Itali mengamalkan sistem republik demokrasi sejak 2 Jun 1946, apabila pemerintahan beraja dimansuhkan oleh sebuah rakyat (rujuk '). Negara ini diisytiharkan pada 1 Januari 1948. Ialah, manakala ialah Perdana Menteri negara (Presiden Majlis Menteri-Menteri). ( Presidente della Repubblica) dipilih oleh parlimen untuk berjawat selama tujuh tahun, bersama sebilangan kecil wakil tempatan. Selaku, Presiden Republik melambangkan perpaduan negara dan menjalankan banyak tugas yang pernah ditugaskan kepada. Presiden ini berkhidmat sebagai titik perhubungan antara ketiga-tiga cabang kuasa: beliau dipilih oleh pembuat undang-undang, beliau melantik para petugas eksekutif, beliau merupakan presiden kehakiman dan beliau juga panglima besar angkatan tentera. Presiden mencalonkan yang mengusulkan menteri-menteri lain (yang dinamakan secara rasmi oleh Presiden). Majlis Menteri-Menteri mesti memenangi undian percaya daripada kedua-dua dewan Parlimen. Rakyat Itali memilih yang terdiri daripada, iaitu ( Camera dei Deputati, “Dewan Para Timbalan”) yang dianggotai oleh 630 orang ahli, dan ( Senato della Repubblica) yang terdiri daripada 315 ahli yang dipilih serta sebilangan kecil ). Kedua-dua dewan boleh menggubal rang undang-undang yang mesti diluluskan dalam bentuk sama oleh majoriti di kedua-dua dewan sekali. Para ahli kedua-dua dewan parlimen dipilih secara langsung oleh rakyat melalui sistem pengundian yang rumit (pindaan terakhir pada 2005) yang menggabungkan perwakilan berkadar dengan hadiah majoriti untuk parti campuran terbesar. Semua warganegara Itali yang berusia 18 tahun ke atas boleh mengundi. Bagaimanapun, untuk mengundi ahli Senat, pengundi mestilah berusia 25 tahun ke atas. Sistem pengundian berdasarkan perwakilan. Pada 17 Ogos 2010, terdapat enam (termasuk dua bekas Presiden). Kedua-dua dewan dipilih untuk penggal tak lebih lima tahun, tetapi boleh dibubarkan oleh Presiden sebelum berakhirnya penggal biasa jika Parlimen tidak dapat memilih kerajaan yang stabil. Dalam sejarah pasca-perang, ini berlaku pada tahun 1972, 1976, 1979, 1983, 1994, 1996, dan 2008. Unik kerana memperuntukkan perwakilan kepada yang bermastautin di luar negara (sekitar 2.7 juta orang). Di kalangan 630 Wakil Rakyat dan 315 Senator, masing-masing terdapat 12 dan 6 orang yang dipilih oleh empat buah. Ahli-ahli Parlimen ini dilantik buat kali pertama pada April 2006, dan mendapat kuasa yang sama rata dengan ahli-ahli yang dipilih oleh pengundi di Itali. Undang-undang [| ] Sistem kehakiman Itali berasaskan yang diubahsuai oleh diikuti oleh statut. Merupakan mahkamah terakhir untuk kebanyakan pertikaian. ( Corte Costituzionale), satu inovasi pasca Perang Dunia Kedua, membuat keputusan tentang keakuran undang-undang dengan. Hubungan luar [| ]. Itali ialah sebuah negara pengasas Kesatuan Eropah. Ia menandatangani pada tahun 2007. Itali merupakan negara pengasas Komuniti Eropah, kini Kesatuan Eropah (EU). Itali diterima masuk ke dalam Pertubuhan Bangsa-Bangsa Bersatu pada tahun 1955, di samping menjadi anggota dan penyokong kuat (NATO), (OECD), / (GATT/WTO), (OSCE),, dan. Itali pernah menyandang jawatan presiden pertubuhan antarabangsa seperti (CSCE), pendahulu OSCE, pada tahun 1994;; dan EU pada Julai hingga Disember 2003 serta tahun 2009. Itali menyokong PBB dan kegiatan-kegiatan keselamatan antarabangsa anjurannya. Itali mengerah tentera untuk menyokong misi pengamanan PBB di Somalia, Mozambique, dan Timor Timur, serta memberikan sokongan kepada operasi NATO dan PBB di Bosnia, Kosovo dan Albania. Itali mengerahkan seramai 2,000 askar ke Afghanistan untuk menyokong (OEF) pada Februari 2003. Itali tetap menyokong usaha antarabangsa untuk membina semula dan menstabilkan Iraq, tetapi menarik balik kontinjen tenteranya yang seramai 3,200 askar pada November 2006, sambil meninggalkan petugas kemanusiaan dan kakitangan awam yang lain di Iraq. Pada Ogos 2006, Itali menghantar seramai 2,450 askar ke Lubnan untuk misi pengamanan. Tentera [| ]. Kapal induk pesawat udara. Terdiri daripada,, dan yang terletak di bawah perintah Majlis Pertahanan Agung yang diketuai oleh. Mulai tahun 1999, kemasukan tentera adalah secara sukarela. Pada tahun 2010, tentera Itali dianggotai oleh 293,202 orang kakitangan aktif, termasuk 114,778 ahli Gendarmerie (polis tentera). Jumlah perbelanjaan tentera Itali pada 2010 adalah $35.8 bilion atau 1.7% KNDK-nya, menduduki tangga. Sebagai peserta, Itali juga menyimpan 90 butir milik Amerika Syarikat di pangkalan udara dan. Tentera Darat Itali ialah angkatan pertahanan daratan negara yang dianggotai 109,703 orang pada tahun 2008. Antara kenderaan tempur milik tentera Itali yang paling digeruni ialah, dan, dan. Tentera Darat Itali juga menyimpan seangkatan besar kereta perisai dan. Sebuah kendalian. Pada tahun 2008, Tentera Laut Itali dianggotai 35,200 kakitangan aktif dengan 85 buah kapal dan 123 buah pesawat dalam kegunaan. Pada zaman moden, Tentera Laut Itali selaku anggota NATO banyak mengambil bahagian dalam operasi kerjasama di serata dunia. Tentera Udara Itali pula dikuatkan oleh 43,882 orang dan 585 pesawat, termasuk 219 jet tempur dan 114 helikopter. Tentera Itali dilengkapi kor berautonomi iaitu Itali yang mengawal keselamatan tentera dan orang awam di samping angkatan polis yang lain di Itali. Walaupun Carabinieri terdiri daripada berbagai-bagai cabang yang melapor diri kepada kementerian-kementerian berasingan bagi setiap fungsi individunya, namun kor ini melapor diri kepada Kementerian Hal Ehwal dalam Negeri mengenai hal ketenteraman dan keselamatan awam. Ekonomi [| ]. Rencana utama: Itali mengamalkan ekonomi kapitalis dengan keluaran dalam negeri kasar (KDNK) per kapita yang tinggi serta prasarana yang cukup maju. Menurut, pada tahun 2008, Itali merupakan di dunia dan keempat terbesar di Eropah. Itali menganggotai (G8) negara berindustri, Kesatuan Eropah dan. Pada zaman pasca-perang, Itali bertukar dari sebuah ekonomi berasaskan pertanian yang teruk terjejas akibat Perang Dunia Kedua, menjadi, dan sebuah negara peneraju dalam. Pada tahun 1987, ekonomi Itali mengatasi dari segi KDNK (nominal) untuk masa yang singkat dalam peristiwa yang dikenali sebagai ' (pemintasan), dan pada tahun 1991, Itali menjadi kuasa ekonomi keempat atau kelima terbesar di dunia sehingga pernah mengatasi Perancis juga. Tetapi kini, setelah pertumbuhan lembap yang berlarutan serta prestasi China yang mengatasi semua ekonomi negara Eropah, Itali tersungkur ke tangga ketujuh (menurut ranking IMF dan Bank Dunia) dalam senarai negara mengikut KDNK (dan juga tangga ke-10 dari segi pariti kuasa beli). Pada tahun 1980, hutang kerajaan hanya 56.9% KDNK, tetapi menjelang tahun 1994, ia mencapai takat 121.8% KDNK, lebih dua kali ganda had maksimum yang ditetapkan oleh perjanjian Maastricht dan juga tahap keterhutangan yang tertinggi di kalangan negara-negara Kesatuan Eropah. Pada 15 November 2010, badan statistik EU, Eurostat melaporkan bahawa pada tahun 2009, nisbah hutang Itali adalah 116%, iaitu yang kedua terbesar selepas Greece dengan 126.8%. Berbeza dengan Greece, hutang Itali berupa domestik; sebenarnya, kebanyakan pemegang hak milik hutang merupakan warganegara Itali yang sama. Perindustrian Itali pada umumnya tidak terhutang, kadar tabungan keluarga Itali adalah antara yang tertingi di dunia, dan sistem perbankan Itali tidak teruk terjejas oleh krisis yang melanda negara besar yang lain, maka Itali mampu mengawal defisit tahunan negara. Ekonomi Itali berdepan dengan tiga masalah utama: pertumbuhan yang rendah, ketidakcekapan pihak berkuasa dan kawasan selatan yang kurang terbangun. Sejak 1990-an, ekonomi Itali disifatkan amat rendah pertumbuhannya berbanding negara-negara Eropah yang lain. Pada tahun 2000 hingga 2007, purata pertumbuhannya 1.5%, berbanding 2.4% bagi seluruh Kesatuan Eropah. Itali menganggotai kesatuan monetari (biru tua), dan. Menurut, Itali menikmati tahap kebebasan yang tinggi untuk pelaburan, perniagaan dan perdagangan. Itali ialah sebuah yang mencatat kelapan tertinggi di dunia menurut majalah. Negara ini juga menikmati. Menurut data terkini, masih setara dengan purata EU, manakala kadar penganggurannya (8.5%) adalah antara yang terendah di EU. Itali menyimpan keempat terbesar. Negara ini juga terkenal kerana sektor ekonomi perniagaan yang berpengaruh dan berinovasi, sektor pertanian yang berindustri dan berdaya saing (Itali is the world's largest wine producer ), dan sektor automotif, perkilangan, kelengkapan dan reka fesyen yang berdaya cipta dan bermutu tinggi. Namun demikian, ekonomi negara mengharungi pelbagai cabaran. Setelah pertumbuhan KDNK yang mendadak pada +8% mulai tahun 1964, purata kadar pertumbuhan tahunan sejak tahun 2000 melarat pada 1.23% berbanding dengan purata EU sebanyak 2.28%. Selain itu, taraf hidup di Itali ketara bezanya antara utara dan selatan. Purata KDNK per kapita di jauh mengungguli purata EU, sementara sesetengah daerah di Itali Selatan jauh ketinggalan. Itali sering mendapat jolokan “orang sakit Eropah” kerana ekonominya yang terbantut, ketidakstabilan politik dan masalah pelaksanaan rancangan pembaharuan. Ladang anggur di. Itali ialah pengeluar wain terunggul di dunia. Lebih-lebih lagi, Itali mengalami kelemahan struktur kerana bentuk buminya serta ketandusan bahan mentah dan sumber tenaga: pada tahun 2006, negara ini mengimport lebih daripada 86% jumlah penggunaan tenaganya (99.7% bahan api pejal, 92.5% petroleum, 91.2% gas asli dan 15% elektrik). Ekonomi Itali juga dicacatkan oleh kekurangan pembangunan prasarana, pembaharuan pasaran dan pelaburan penyelidikan, serta defisit awam yang tinggi. Menurut 2008, negara ini menduduki tangga ke-64 di dunia dan ke-29 di Eropah, iaitu yang terendah di. Itali masih menerima dari Kesatuan Eropah setiap tahun. Pada tahun 2000 hingga 2006, Itali menerima €27.4 bilion dari EU. Mengikut 2010, Itali merupakan negara paling korup di. Perusahaan [| ]. Itali ialah pengeksport barangan ke-7 terbesar di dunia. Itali mempunyai bilangan syarikat multinasional bertaraf dunia yang sedikit berbanding ekonomi-ekonomi lain yang setanding saiznya, tetapi mempunyai banyak, dan juga “segi tiga perindustrian” utara (Milan-Turin-Genoa) atau segi tiga perindustrian Tuscany (Florence-Prato-Pistoia), iaitu tempat-tempat letaknya kawasan pengeluaran industri dan jentera yang hebat. Ini telah melahirkan sektor perindustrian yang selalu tertumpu pada eksport keluaran mewah atau, iaitu walaupun kurang mampu bersaing dari segi jumlah keluaran, namun menjadikan keluaran bermutu tinggi sebagai kelebihan untuk berdepan dengan persaingan dari China dan ekonomi-ekonomi Asia yang membangkit dengan asas kos buruh yang rendah. Negara ini merupakan negara pengeksport ketujuh terbesar di dunia pada tahun 2009. Barangan dan syarikat eksport utama Itali mengikut sektor ialah kenderaan bermotor (,,, ); kimia dan petrokimia (); tenaga dan kejuruteraan elektrik (, ); kelengkapan rumah (, ), teknologi aeroangkasa dan pertahanan (,, ), senjata api (), fesyen (,,,,,,, ); pemprosesan makanan (,,,, ); kereta sport dan mewah (,,, ); perahu layar (, ). Itali paling rapat menjalin hubungan perdagangan dengan negara-negara Kesatuan Eropah yang lain yang menyumbangkan kira-kira 59% jumlah dagangannya, khususnya (dari segi bahagian pasaran) Jerman (12.9%), Perancis (11.4%), dan Sepanyol (7.4%). Pelancongan [| ] Pelancongan merupakan salah sebuah sektor yang paling pesat bertumbuh dan lumayan dalam ekonomi negara: dengan 43.7 juta ketibaan pelancong antarabangsa dan jumlah pendapatan dianggarkan $42.7 bilion, Itali merupakan negara yang keempat terbanyak pendapatan pelancongan dan yang kelima paling kerap dilawati di dunia. Meskipun merosot pada lewat 1980-an dan sewaktu, namun Itali berjaya membina semula industri pelancongannya pada pertengahan 1990-an. Antara tarikan pengunjung paling terkenal di Itali termasuk Colosseum (4 juta orang pelawat setahun) dan puing-puing Pompeii (2.5 juta orang pelawat setahun). Pengangkutan [| ]. Kereta api berkelajuan tinggi yang mampu mencapai 355 km/h (220.59 ). Pada tahun 2004, sektor pengangkutan di Itali menjana pusing ganti sekitar 119.4 bilion euro, mengambil kerja 935,700 orang di 153,700 perusahaan. Berkenaan rangkaian jalan raya negara, pada tahun 2002, terdapat sejumlah 668,721 km (415,612 batu) jalan raya yang boleh digunakan di Itali, termasuk 6,487 km (4,031 batu) lebuh raya yang milik negara tetapi dikendali oleh syarikat swasta. Pada tahun 2005, sekitar 34,667,000 (590 kereta per 1,000 orang) dan 4,015,000 kenderaan pengangkut yang berjalan atas rangkaian jalan raya negara. Rangkaian kereta api negara yang milik negara dan dikendali oleh, berjumlah 16,287 km (10,122 batu) yang digunakan oleh 4,937 lokomotif dan relkar pada tahun 2003; 69% daripadanya dielektrikkan. Rangkaian pedalaman negara terdiri daripada sungai-sungai dan terusan-terusan yang boleh dilayari berjumlah 1,477 km (918 batu) pada tahun 2002. Pada tahun 2004, terdapat kira-kira 30 lapangan terbang utama (termasuk dua buah iaitu di Milan dan di Rom) serta 43 pelabuhan utama (termasuk pelabuhan di, iaitu yang terbesar di negara dan kedua terbesar di ). Pada tahun 2005, Itali menyimpan armada pesawat awam sebanyak 389,000 unit dan armada saudagar sebanyak 581 kapal. Demografi [| ]. Kependudukan 1960–2006. Bilangan penduduk (ribu orang). Dengan sekitar 60.6 juta orang, Itali mempunyai jumlah penduduk yang keempat teramai di Kesatuan Eropah dan yang ke-23 teramai di dunia. Kepadatan penduduknya pada lebih 200 orang per kilometer persegi (lebih 500 sebatu persegi), merupakan yang kelima tertinggi di EU. Kawasan yang paling padat ialah yang hanya merangkumi satu pertiga tanah negara tetapi diduduki oleh hampir separuh jumlah penduduk negara. Selepas Perang Dunia Kedua, Itali menikmati pertumbuhan ekonomi yang pesat dan berpanjangan sehingga penduduk luar bandar beramai-ramai berhijrah ke kota, dan pada masa yang sama mengubah wajah Itali daripada punca emigrasi besar-besaran menjadi negara penerima imigran bersih. Kesuburan tinggi berkekalan hingga 1970-an, kemudian menjunam di bawah kadar penggantian, maka pada tahun 2008, satu perlima orang Itali berusia lebih 65 tahun. Namun demikian, berkat kedatangan penghijrahan beramai-ramai sejak 1990-an, pada dekad pertama abad ke-21, Itali mencatatkan pertumbuhan dalam kadar kelahiran kasar (khususnya di kawasan utara) buat kali pertama sejak bertahun-tahun lamanya. Juga banyak meningkat pada 1990-an hingga 2000-an, kesan peningkatan kelahiran di kalangan wanita tempatan mahupun kelahiran luar negara, maka ia meningkat daripada paras terendah dalam sejarah iaitu 1.18 anak per ibu pada tahun 1995, kepada 1.41 pada tahun 2008. Pembandaran [| ] Menurut, bandar-bandar gabungan yang terbesar ialah: • – 7.4 juta • Rom – 3.7 juta • – 3.1 juta • – 2.2 juta Penghijrahan [| ]. Di New York, sekitar tahun 1900. Itali menjadi negara punca penghijrah beramai-ramai sebaik sahaja selepas negara disatuka semula pada lewat abad ke-19. Dari tahun 1898 hingga 1914, iaitu zaman kemuncak diaspora Itali, kira-kira 750,000 orang Itali berhijrah setiap tahun. Komuniti-komuniti Itali pernah mekar di bekas jajahan Afrika di Eritrea (hampir 100,000 orang pada awal Perang Dunia II), Somalia dan Libya (150,000 orang Itali menetap di Libya, untuk membentuk 18% jumlah penduduk). Semua warga Itali di Libya diusir dari negara Afrika Utara tersebut pada tahun 1970. Sedekad selepas Perang Dunia Ke-II, lebih 350,000 orang yang terdiri daripada etnik Itali telah meninggalkan (lihat ). Ramai penduduk berketurunan Itali yang tinggal di Brazil (25 juta), Argentina (20 juta), Amerika Syarikat (17.8 juta), Perancis (5 juta), Uruguay (1.5 juta), Kanada (1.4 juta), Venezuela (900,000) dan Australia (800,000). Pada awal tahun 2010, terdapat 4,235,059 orang warganegara asing (7.1% penduduk negara ) yang menetap di Itali dan berdaftar dengan pihak berkuasa. Perangkaan ini merangkumi lebih setengah juta kanak-kanak yang lahir kepada warganegara asing di Itali (pendatang generasi kedua makin menonjol dalam demografi negara) tetapi tidak termasuk warganegara asing yang meraih kewarganegaraan Itali (53,696 orang pada 2008). Ini juga tidak termasuk pendatang haram ( clandestini) yang sukar ditentukan jumlahnya. Pada Mei 2008, menganggarkan seramai 670,000 pendatang haram berada di Itali. Pada tahun 2009, asal-usul penduduk imigran Itali terdiri daripada yang berikut: Eropah (53.5%), Afrika (22.3%), Asia (15.8%), benua Amerika (8.1%) dan Oseania (0.06%). Taburan penduduk kelahiran asing juga tidak sekata di Itali: 87.3% pendatang tinggal di kawasan utara dan tengah negara (iaitu kawasan termaju), manakala hanya 12.8% yang tinggal di selatan semenanjung. Asal-usul penduduk Itali pada 1 Januari 2010 Asal-usul Jumlah penduduk Peratus 56,118,099 92.98% 887,763 1.47% Afrika Utara 646,624 1.07% 466,684 0.77% 188,352 0.28% 153,998 0.31% (bukan Cina) 499,013 0.83% Amerika Latin 324,917 0.54% 285,169 0.47% Lain-lain 782,549 1.29% Bahasa [| ]. Dunia berbahasa Itali. Biru tua:bahasa rasmi; hijau: sekunder, dituturkan atau difahami ramai; biru muda: difahami oleh sesetengah orang kesan penjajahan dahulu. Bahasa kebangsaan Itali tak lain tak bukan bahasa Itali. Menganggarkan bahawa terdapat sekitar 55 juta orang penutur bahasa Itali di Itali dan 6.7 juta orang lagi di luar negara. Bagaimanapun, seramai 120 hingga 150 juta orang menuturkan bahasa Itali sebagai bahasa kedua atau bahasa budaya di seluruh dunia. Bahasa Itali yang menjadi bahasa kebangsaan negara selepas, adalah berasaskan loghat dalam dan agak berada di perantaraan di dan. Perkembangannya juga dipengaruhi oleh bahasa-bahasa Germanik daripada puak penjajah pasca Empayar Rom. Di Itali terdapat bermacam-macam loghat yang dituturkan di seluruh negara dan terdapat sesetengah orang Itali yang tidak boleh berbahasa Itali langsung. Namun begitu, penubuhan sistem pendidikan kebangsaan telah menyebabkan kurangnya kelainan dalam pertuturan bahasa Itali di seluruh negara. Pembakuan bahasa dirancakkan lagi pada 1950-an dan 1960-an berkat pembangunan ekonomi dan kebangkitan media massa dan televisyen (penyiar negara, membantu menentukan bahasa Itali baku). Sesetengah kelompok etnik mendapat pengiktirafan di sisi undang-undang, dan sebilangan bahasa minoriti menikmati taraf rasmi bersama bahasa Itali di sesetengah kawasan di Itali. Bahasa Perancis ialah bahasa rasmi bersama di, walaupun sebenarnya lebih meluas di situ. Bahasa Jerman mendapat taraf yang seumpamanya di, begitu juga dengan di beberapa bahagian di wilayah itu dan juga daerah. Diiktiraf secara rasmi di wilayah-wilayah, dan di daerah. Di kawasan-kawasan terbabit, persuratan rasmi ditulis dalam dua bahasa (atau tiga bahasa di kawasan Ladin), ataupun disediakan atas permintaan dalam bahasa Itali ataupun bahasa rasmi bersama itu. Papan tanda lalulintas juga berbilang bahasa, kecuali di Valle d’Aosta di mana toponim Perancis diutamakan (kecuali bandar yang mengekalkan bahasa Itali); hasrat untuk Valle d’Aosta pada zaman Fasis telah pun dipendamkan. Pendidikan dalam bahasa minoriti dibenarkan di mana letaknya sekolah-sekolah sedemikan. 0.1% Agama Katolik Rom merupakan agama yang terbesar di negara, namun Gereja Katolik bukan lagi. 87.8% orang Itali mengakui diri sebagai penganut Katolik Rom, namun hanya kira-kira satu pertiga penganut mengakui kuat pegangan agamanya (36.8%). Kebanyakan orang Itali percaya kepada Tuhan ataupun sesuatu kuasa hidup yang rohani. Menurut tinjauan yang terkini (2005): 74% warganegara Itali menjawab bahawa 'mereka percaya akan kewujudan Tuhan', 16% menjawab bahawa 'mereka wujud akan suatu jenis roh atau kuasa hidup' dan 6% lagi menjawab bahawa 'mereka tidak percaya akan sebarang jenis roh, Tuhan, atau kuasa hidup'. Kristian [| ] Gereja Katolik Itali ialah sebahagian Gereja Katolik Rom sedunia di bawah kepimpinan, di Rom, dan. Selain Itali, dua buah negara berdaulat yang lain terangkum dalam kawasan uskup yang bertapak di Itali, iaitu San Marino dan Kota Vatikan. Terdapat 225 kawasan uskup di Gereja Katolik Itali. Walaupun Kota Vatikan bukan wilayah Itali mengikut undang-undang, namun ia terletak dalam lingkungan Rom, dan bahasa Itali merupakan bahasa yang paling kerap dituturkan dan bahasa kedua selain. Gereja besar di, yang mempunyai kubah bata terbesar di dunia, dan dianggap sebagai sebuah mahakarya seni bina Itali. Itali kaya dengan kebudayaan Katolik, terutamanya kerana ramai, dan paus Katolik merupakan orang Itali. Seni Katolik Rom di Itali mekar pada zaman-zaman, dan, ketika ia digiatkan oleh tokoh-tokoh seni seperti,,,,,,,,, dan. Seni bina Katolik Rom di Itali juga tidak kurang kaya dan mengagumkan, dengan gereja-gereja dan basilika-basilika seperti, dan. Itali juga tempat tinggal bilangan yang teramai di dunia, dan juga negara yang paling banyak gereja Katolik Rom per kapita. Walaupun mazhab Kristian utama Itali ialah Katolik Rom, namun juga terdapat golongan minoriti yang bermazhab Protestan,, dan lain-lain. Pada abad ke-20,,, tak bermazhab, dan merupakan cabang-cabang Protestan yang paling pesat berkembang. Kedatangan penghijrah dari,, dan Timur pada awal abad ke-21 telah meningkatkan jumlah penganut,, Pentekosta dan Evangelikal di Itali, sementara penghijrahan dari Eropah Timur pula membesarkan komuniti Ortodoks Timur. Pada tahun 2006, 2.1% penduduk Itali menganut Protestan, sementara 1.2% yang lain menganut Ortodoks Timur. Kelompok-kelompok Kristian yang lain di Itali terdiri daripada, antara lainnya, lebih 700,000 Kristian Ortodoks Timur, termasuk 180,000, 550,000 Pentekosta dan Evangelis (0.8%), termasuk 400,000 ahli, 235,685 Saksi Jehovah (0.4%), 30,000 Waldensian, 25,000, 22,000 Mormon, 15,000 Baptis (termasuk 5,000 Baptis Bebas), 7,000, 4,000 (bersekutu dengan Gereja Waldensian). Agama lain [| ] Agama yang paling lama wujud di Itali ialah agama Yahudi, kerana bangsa Yahudi sudah lama menetap di sebelum kelahiran Nabi Isa. Di Itali lahirnya ramai tokoh Yahudi yang berpengaruh, seperti yang menjadi Perdana Menteri pada tahun 1910; yang berkhidmat sebagai datuk bandar Rom pada tahun 1907 hingga 1913; dan, seorang ahli sains Zaman Pertengahan. Sewaktu, Itali menyerap ramai orang pelarian Yahudi dari. Bagaimanapun, apabila Itali diambil alih oleh, sekitar 15% orang Yahudi Itali dibunuh walaupun kerajaan Fasis enggan menghantar golongan Yahudi ke kem maut Nazi. Oleh sebab peristiwa ini dan juga emigrasi sebelum dan selepas Perang Dunia Kedua, komuniti Yahudi di Itali sudah mengecil kepada sekitar 45,000 orang sekarang. Kesan penghijrahan dari merata dunia, jumlah penganut bukan Kristian semakin ramai. Pada tahun 2009, terdapat 1.0 juta umat di Itali yang membentuk 1.6% jumlah penduduk, namun hanya 50,000 orang Muslim yang memegang. Pihak berkecuali menganggarkan jumlah penduduk Muslim di Itali antara 0.8 juta hingga 1.5 juta. Itali juga diduduki oleh 200,000 penganut agama yang berasal dari benua kecil India, termasuk 70,000 orang yang beribadah di 22 di seluruh negara, 70,000 orang, dan 50,000 orang penganut. Juga terdapat kira-kira 4,900 orang di Itali pada tahun 2005. Pendidikan [| ]. Di Rom adalah yang terbesar di Eropah dengan 140,000 orang pelajar. Pendidikan awam di Itali adalah percuma dan wajib untuk kanak-kanak berusia 6 hingga 15 tahun. Sistem pendidikan Itali terdiri daripada lima tahun dan lapan tahun yang terbahagi kepada sekolah menengah gred pertama () dan sekolah menengah gred kedua (sekolah tinggi). Itali juga menawarkan pendidikan swasta. Mengikut National Science Indicators (1981–2002), pangkalan data yang dibentuk oleh Research Services Group dan mengandungi senarai statistik output dan petikan untuk lebih 90 negara, Itali mencatat output yang melebihi purata dunia (dari segi bilangan kertas kerja yang dikarang oleh sekurang-kurangnya seorang pengarang dari Itali) dalam bidang (9.75% kertas kerja di dunia dari Itali), (5.51% kertas kerja di dunia),,,,, dan, dan ekonomi dan. Adalah yang tertua di Eropah, diasaskan pada tahun 1088. Itali menempatkan beraneka institusi pengajian tinggi, baik universiti, kolej, mahupun akademi. Di Milan bertempat di kalangan 20 terunggul di dunia oleh akhbar, khususnya berkat program yang menaikkan institusi ini ke tangga ke-17 dari segi keutamaan perekrutan siswazah pada tahun 2007. Selain itu, juga menempatkan Bocconi di tangga teratas sedunia untuk kategori Berbaloi dengan Harga. Pada Mei 2008, Bocconi mengatasi beberapa maktab perniagaan terunggul sedunia yang lain dalam ranking untuk mendapat tangga ke-5 di Eropah dan ke-15 di dunia. Kad insurans kesihatan awam Itali Itali mengamalkan sistem penjagaan kesihatan awam sejak tahun 1978. Perbelanjaan penjagaan kesihatan di Itali menyumbangkan 9.0% KDNK negara pada tahun 2008, sedikit melebihi purata negara iaitu 8.9%. Bagaimanapun, Itali menduduki tempat kedua sistem penjagaan kesihatan terbaik di dunia, dan tempat ketiga prestasi penjagaan kesihatan di dunia. Itali mencatat ke-12 tertinggi di dunia pada tahun 2010, tetapi juga berdepan dengan peningkatan orang yang terlebih berat badan atau dengan 34.2% orang Itali yang mengaku terlebih berat badan dan 9.8% melaporkan diri sebagai obes. 22% penduduk Itali merokok setiap hari pada tahun 2008. Merokok di tempat awam, termasuk bar, kedai makan, kelab malam dan pejabat telah dihadkan kepada bilik has yang berudara sejak tahun 2005. Sains dan teknologi [| ]. Merupakan salah seorang pelopor sains moden. Selama ratusan tahun, Itali telah melahirkan ramai ahli sains yang handal-handal belaka, antara mereka ialah mungkin polimat yang paling terkenal dalam sejarah, iaitu yang membuat bermacam-macam sumbangan kepada pelbagai bidang, termasuk seni, biologi, dan teknologi. Ialah seorang ahli,, dan yang memainkan peranan utama dalam. Antara pencapaian beliau ialah pemerhatian astronomi menerusi, dan sokongan kepada fahaman., ahli fizik yang memenangi hadiah Nobel merupakan ketua pasukan yang membina dan juga dikenang kerana banyak lagi sumbangannya kepada bidang fizik, termasuklah pembangunan. Di Itali letaknya jumlah yang terbanyak (45) setakat ini, serta menyimpan kekayaan seni, budaya dan sastera sedunia dari pelbagai zaman. Di Itali letaknya sejumlah kira-kira 100,000 monumen yang beraneka jenis (muzium, istana, binaan, patung, gereja, balai seni, vila, pancutan air, rumah bersejarah dan tinggalan arkeologi). Antara binaan-binaan terhebat dalam seni bina Barat terletak di Itali, seperti,,, dan reka bina kota. Bidang seni lukis Itali menemui kemuncak kegemilangannya pada zaman-zaman,, dan, apabila lahirnya pelukis-pelukis handalan seperti,,,,, dan. Kesenian Itali bangkit semula pada abad ke-20 dengan gaya, terutamanya hasil seni dan, disusuli oleh lukisan metafizik yang berpengaruh hebat terhadap gerakan dan generasi-generasi seniman yang seterusnya. Asas moden ditetapkan oleh pemuisi, yang karya paling agungnya, (Komedi Kudus), diangkat sebagai kenyataan sastera terulung yang dihasilkan di Eropah pada. Sasterawan-sasterawan berbangsa Itali tiada kurangnya:,,,,, dan yang terkenal kerana mencipta gaya puisi. Itali juga berbangga kerana namanya diharumkan oleh ramai sasterawan moden yang memenangi hadiah Nobel pula termasuk pemuisi nasionalis (1906), pengarang realis (1926), pengarang teater (1936), pemuisi (1959) dan (1975), ahli satira dan pengarang teater (1997). Kesenian Itali diserikan lagi oleh industri fesyen yang hebat dan banyak berpusat di bandaraya. Jenama-jenama fesyen utama dari Itali seperti,,,,,,,,, dan, dipandang sebagai syarikat-syarikat fesyen yang terunggul di dunia. Begitu juga, disanjungi sebagai majalah fesyen yang paling terkemuka dan berprestij di dunia. Muzik dan filen [| ]. Penggubah Itali yang terkenal kerana karya opera yang tersohor, seperti,,, dan. Sebati dengan jati diri Itali, di mana terciptanya alat-alat muzik seperti piano dan biola, di samping banyak jenis muzik klasikal yang menonjol seperti, konserto, dan, yang dikatakan lahir sekitar abad ke-16 dan ke-17. Antara penggubah-penggubah muzik terkenal dari Itali termasuklah,,,, dan pada zaman Pembaharuan dan Moden Awal. Muzik pop pula diserikan oleh dan yang terkenal sebagai perintis dan, serta artis-artis yang disanjungi di mata dunia seperti,, dan. Walaupun tradisi muzik klasikal masih teguh di Itali, seperti yang terbukti dengan puluhan dewan opera yang terkenal seperti di Milan dan di Naples, serta para seniman seperti pemain piano dan penyanyi tenor mendiang, namun rakyat Itali tidak kurang menyambut baik persada muzik kontemporari yang rancak di negara itu. Salah seorang tenor termasyhur sepanjang zaman. Itali terkenal sekali sebagai tempat kelahiran opera. Dipercayai diasaskan pada awal abad ke-17, di bandar-bandar Itali seperti dan. Lama-kelamaan, karya-karya yang digubah oleh tokoh Itali pada abad ke-19 dan awal abad ke-20 seperti,,, dan, berada di kalangan opera-opera paling sohor yang pernah digubah dan kini masih dipersembahkan di dewan-dewan opera di merata dunia. Dewan opera di Milan merupakan salah sebuah dewan opera yang terunggul di dunia. Antara bakat-bakat nyanyian opera Itali yang termasyhur sekali ialah,,,, dan ramai lagi. Sejarah perfileman Itali bermula beberapa bulan selepas memulakan pameran wayang gambar bergerak. Filem buatan Itali yang sulung hanya beberapa saat panjangnya, menunjukkan menyampaikan restu ke hadapan kamera. Industri perfileman Itali pada awalnya terbukti mendapat perhatian di pasaran dunia. Kemudian, ia juga dimanfaatkan oleh yang mengasaskan studio yang masyhur di Rom untuk penghasilan bahan dakyah Fasis hingga Perang Dunia Kedua. Selepas peperangan, filem-filem Itali tetap diminati di dunia sehingga 1980-an apabila ia mengalami kemerosotan kesenian. Antara pengarah-pengarah filem Itali yang terkenal dari zaman tersebut termasuk,,,,, dan. Antara filem-filem Itali yang menjadi pusaka perfileman sedunia ialah, dan. Baru-baru ini, persada perfileman Itali sekali-sekala mendapat perhatian antarabangsa, antaranya arahan dan oleh. Sukan [| ] Itali mengamalkan tradisi kesukanan sejak sekian lama. Dalam pelbagai sukan, baik berpasukan mahupun perseorangna, Itali bermaruah tinggi dan mencapai banyak kejayaan. Sukan yang paling diminati ramai tak lain tak bukan, diikuti oleh bola keranjang dan bola tampar yang turut dikuasai oleh Itali. Pasukan bola sepak Itali memenangi empat setakat ini, kali terakhir pada tahun. Itali juga mempertaruhkan jaguh-jaguh handalan dalam sukan,,,, dan. Dari Itali ialah pasukan paling lama yang masih aktif dalam perlumbaan semenjak mulai bertanding pada tahun 1948, apatah lagi ia juga pasukan yang paling cemerlang dalam sejarah dengan rekod 15 kejuaraan pemandu dan 16 kejuaraan pengeluar kereta (setakat 2010). Masakan [| ]. Neapolitan yang asli. Masakan Itali moden telah berevolusi seiring dengan perubahan sosial dan politik berabad-abad, dengan akar umbinya seawal-awal abad ke-4 SM. Perubahan hebat berlaku apabila ditemui dan jenis sayur-sayuran baru ditemui, seperti ubi kentang, tomato, dan jagung. Bagaimanapun, ramuan-ramuan utama masakan Itali moden ini tidak diperkenalkan secara besar-besaran sebelum abad ke-18. Ramuan dan hidangan tempatan berbeza-beza mengikut setempat. Bagaimanapun, banyak juga hidangan daerah yang telah tersebar ke merata negara dalam pelbagai bentuk kelainan. Keju dan wain sebati sekali dalam masakan Itali kerana memainkan peranan-peranan yang berbeza di peringkat daerah dan negara dengan kepelbagaian jenisnya serta undang-undang (penamaan terlaras). Tidak lupa juga minuman kopi, khususnya, yang sudah menjadi mustahak sekali dalam masakan kebudayaan Itali. Some famous dishes and items include,,,,,,,, dan. Lihat juga [| ]. From In today's world, everything is digital. From shopping receipts to important research papers, your life often fills your hard drive in the form of emails, PDFs, Word documents, multimedia files and more. Questions eventually pop up, like where do you store all of this stuff? 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